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liobert  N;Willso.rL  ?1.D, 


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MEDICAL   MEN 


IN  THE 


TIME  OF  CHRIST 


BY 

ROBERT  N.  WILLSON,  M.  D. 


PHILADELPHIA 

The  Sunday  School  Times  Company 

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Copyright,  1910,  by 
Robert  N.  Willson,  Jr. 


DEDICATION  AND  PREFACE 


Some  knowledge  has  been  had  and  some  use 
made  of  the  gift  of  healing  since  time  and  man 
joined  fellowship.  Vegetable  and  the  lower 
animal  life,  the  grass  of  the  field  and  the 
birds  of  the  air,  all  preceded  man  upon  the 
earth. 

Decay  and  repair  were  probably  eons  old 
among  primitive  living  forms  when  God  called 
Adam  into  being.  Modern  medicine  is  simply 
a  development  by  man  of  the  essential  principles 
of  Nature's  resistance  against  the  use  and  abuse 
of  life's  busy  day. 

At  some  point  disease  entered  the  stage 
astride  of  sin.  Reestablishment  by  medica- 
ments has  therefore  succeeded  never,  and  never 
will  be  successful,  in  the  hands  of  him  who 
depends  solely  upon  human  agencies  for  the 
world's  cure.  Fire  will  refuse  to  burn  unless 
kept  clean,  or  if  fed  only  coal  when  thirsty  for 
a  draught  of  air. 

3 


Dedication  and  Preface 

Before  Moses,  and  ages  before  the  Egyptians, 
the  Hindoos,  and  the  Assyrians,  God  was  famil- 
iar with  every  detail  of  medical  science  that  man 
will  discover  in  the  unfolding  of  time.  Stage 
by  stage,  as  we  have  grown  from  cell  to  sentient 
being,  from  a  creature  dominated  by  reason 
to  one  that  is  making  room  for  love,  He  has  led 
us,  very  slowly  and  with  great  patience,  toward 
an  eternity  in  which  there  shall  be  no  more 
curse,  and  from  which  death  and  disease  shall 
have  vanished  away. 

Moses  and  the  Law  seem  to  have  constituted 
the  first  day  in  God's  moral  and  physical  sani- 
tation of  the  world.  Sin  was  then  the  great 
public  enemy.  Jesus  Christ  in  His  capacity 
as  the  Great  Physician  constitutes  the  second 
glorious  day.  Selfishness  and  self-seeking  on 
the  part  of  humankind  have  postponed  its  high 
noon.  The  last  and  brightest  dawn  will  break 
when  the  Father  Himself  shall  have  wiped  away 
all  tears;  when  "the  great  voice  of  much  people 
in  heaven"  shall  have  witnessed  that  He  is  ever 
round  about  them  that  fear  Him. 

One  of  His  agencies  has  lived  in  medicine 
and  medical  men,  who  have  been  privileged  to 

4 


Dedication  and  Preface 

render  the  way  more  smooth  in  a  world  made 
sorry  by  the  restiveness  and  sinning  of  human 
children  unwilling  to  trust  and  obey.  The 
science  of  healing  has  precluded  many  a  disaster 
otherwise  recognizable  only  when  beyond  con- 
trol. The  history  of  its  practise  lays  emphasis 
upon  prevention  rather  than  cure.  Illumined 
by  the  personality  of  Christ,  the  art  of  heal- 
ing must  take  on  a  new  fascination  and  com- 
pelling interest  for  those  to  whom  that  is  whole- 
some and  winsome  which  He  held  dear. 

In  no  other  department  of  professional  ac- 
tivity is  there  such  physical  drudgery,  such 
mental  tire  and  discouragement,  and  such  a 
need  for  an  abiding  faith  in  the  good  that  lies 
deep  in  the  hearts  of  one's  fellow-men,  lest 
there  grow  apace  a  cynicism  that  shall  cause 
even  charity  to  become  cold.  The  doctor 
knows  both  the  warmth  of  gratitude  and  affec- 
tion, and  the  heartlessness  of  commercialism 
and  neglect.  Yet  he  loves  his  work,  and  in  no 
realm  of  science  are  there  to  be  found  more 
loyal,  devoted  followers  of  Christ,  that  Friend 
of  all  who  need,  than  among  medical  men. 

In  an  attempt  to  sketch  the  doctor  of  Christ's 

5 


Dedication  and  Preface 

day  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  outline  his 
development  from  antiquity.  In  so  doing  a 
brief  monograph  has  outgrown  itself  into  a 
little  book.  Yet  if  the  result  shall  aid  a  single 
student  of  medicine,  or  of  humanity  as  such, 
to  a  more  perfect  understanding  of  His  environ- 
ment and  purpose,  or  in  coming  into  closer 
personal  touch  with  the  Master  Physician,  the 
author  will  consider  that  his  effort  has  been  of 
some  avail. 

It  is  inscribed  to  the  Great  Physician,  who  is 
still  spending  Himself  lavishly  upon  the  salva- 
tion of  every  life  that  yields  itself  to  His  all- 
power  and  skill,  and  from  whom  goes  virtue 
to  every  needy  soul  that  touches  His  garment's 
hem. 

1708  Locust  Street, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

6 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Review  of  Medical  History 9 

II.  Lay  Conditions  Surrounding  Medical  Men 

Before  and  In  the  Time  of  Christ  ...  43 

III.  The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health    ....  61 

IV.  Luke  the  Physician 91 

V.  The  Master  Physician 117 


REVIEW  OF  MEDICAL  HISTORY 

Of  what  sort  was  the  doctor  of  Jesus'  time  ? 
Was  he  Jew  or  Gentile?  Where  educated? 
What  was  his  station  in  society  ?  Had  his  prac- 
tise more  to  do  with  medicine,  priestcraft,  or 
magic?  These  questions  are  often  asked. 
Never  has  there  been  received  a  thoroughly 
satisfactory  reply.  Little  has  been  written 
of  medical  life  at  this  period,  and  the  lack  of 
definite  information  at  first  glance  seems  com- 
plete. 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  conditions  sur- 
rounding medical  men  at  or  near  the  time  of 
Christ's  birth  and  ministry,  it  will  be  necessary 
first  of  all  to  examine  the  history  of  ancient 
times  to  ascertain  the  environment  from  which 
the  doctor  of  Christ's  day  grew. 

Whether  the  earliest  medical  knowledge 
found  light  in  Egypt,  or  among  the  Hindoos,  or 
even  in  old  China,  cannot  now  be  determined. 
It  may  have  found  birth  among  the  primitive 

9 


Medical  History 

Phoenicians  on  the  lower  Euphrates.  Their 
migration  to  Syria  about  2400  B.  C.  would 
have  very  early  planted  the  seed  of  medical 
knowledge  in  Canaan.  We  have  every  reason 
to  believe  that  the  Hindoos  at  a  very  early  time 
were  well  abreast  with  the  most  advanced  med- 
ical teaching  and  practise.  The  Hindoo  Nir- 
dana,  or  Diagnosis,  is  not  only  very  old,  but 
very  modern  in  its  principles  and  in  its  teach- 
ings. Their  Dra\7abhidhana,  or  materia  med- 
ica,  is  a  voluminous  work.  There  are  also  a 
number  of  works  on  the  Chikitsa,  or  the  med- 
ical treatment  of  disease.  It  pays  careful 
attention  to  the  rules  of  hygiene,  the  diet 
being  regulated,  proper  exercise  and  fresh  air 
endorsed,  and  simple  medicinal  agencies  rec- 
ommended. The  Ayur  Veda  comprises  the 
ancient  Hindoo  medical  writings  of  deepest 
worth  and  reliability,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
the  work  of  Brahma. 

China  also  dates  her  medicine,  which  is  to- 
day very  primitive,  back  indefinitely  for  many 
centuries. 

Few  physicians  or  laymen  realize  the  practical 
advances  in  Egyptian  medical  knowledge  and 

10 


Medical  History 

skill  as  early  as  3500  B.  C.  From  the  Berlin, 
Leyden,  Westcar,  Kahun,  and  Passalaqua 
papyri  we  have  found  access  to  and  uncovered 
a  mine  of  information  regarding  the  very  early 
medical  students  and  practitioners  in  Egypt, 
that  antedates  both  in  time  and  progress  any 
other  nation's  accomplishment.  From  the 
Berlin  papyrus  we  learn  that  Athothis,  the  son 
of  Menes,  over  6000  years  ago  wrote  in  Egypt 
a  book  on  medicine.  Also  that  Pharaoh  Usa- 
phais  recorded  his  anatomical  studies  in  writ- 
ing; and  that  following  him,  Semti,  of  the  same 
dynasty,  made  record  of  similar  investigations. 
The  most  definite  writing  and  teaching  was 
done,  however,  by  I-em-hotep,  a  great  physician 
living  in  the  third  Egyptian  dynasty  (3500  B.  C). 
He  was  probably  the  son  of  Kanofer,  an  archi- 
tect, though  he  is  usually  spoken  of  as  the  son 
of  the  supreme  god,  Ptah.  He  was  a  priest 
of  Ra,  the  Sun-god,  and  also  the  head  of  a 
society  or  order  of  such  authority  that  in  time 
its  leader  was  deified  as  the  God  of  Medicine. 
The  priests  of  the  land  were  the  physicians, 
and  as  hundreds  of  years  later  in  Greece  the 
asklepia  formed  the  centers  of  medical  prac- 

II 


Medical  History 

tise  and  teaching,  so  their  progenitors,  the 
temples  of  I-em-hotep,  sent  their  influence  and 
doctrines  forth  throughout  the  world.  I-em- 
hotep  was  a  "physician,  minister  of  the  king, 
writer,  architect,  alchemist,  astronomer."  He 
was  evidently  of  a  purely  humanitarian  spirit, 
with  an  eye  to  the  good  of  the  public,  healing 
where  possible,  studying  cases  always,  and 
"giving  peaceful  sleep  to  the  restless  and  suffer- 
ing." In  some  temple  not  yet  recognized  he 
and  his  physician-priests  held  themselves  at 
the  disposal  of  the  ailing  populace.  Egyptians 
came  from  all  directions  to  Memphis  to  con- 
sult I-em-hotep,  to  a  temple  evidently  dedi- 
cated to  him,  from  which  went  out  priests  who 
founded  many  other  temples  in  other  localities, 
just  as  they  migrated  years  after  from  the 
Hieron  at  Epidaurus  to  found  new  asklepia  in 
other  parts  of  Greece.  Beside  the  practise 
of  very  advanced  principles  of  hygiene,  and  the 
use  of  a  large  materia  medica,  his  school  also 
employed  magic,  and  claimed  to  be  able  to 
protect  the  souls  of  the  dead  from  their  enemies 
after  they  had  parted  from  their  bodies.  The 
Egyptians  embalmed  the  bodies,  and  removed 

12 


Medical  History 

and  preserved  the  internal  organs  in  special 
receptacles,  perhaps  for  post-mortem  study. 
Several  hundred  of  their  prescriptions  have 
been  preserved.  There  are  many  references 
to  a  primitive  knowledge  of  the  blood  circula- 
tion in  the  medical  papyri.  I-em-hotep  be- 
lieved that  some  of  the  vessels  contained  blood, 
some  mucus,  and  some  air.  A  great  portion 
of  the  knowledge  that  has  been  ascribed  to 
Hippocrates  was  in  the  possession  of  I-em-hotep, 
and  much  of  it  is  now  in  our  hands  in  his  papyri, 
dated  centuries  before  the  Greeks  began  to 
travel  to  Egypt  to  absorb  the  principles  of 
medicine.  He  treated  tuberculosis,  plague, 
anemia,  leprosy,  and  described  these  conditions 
in  medical  papyri  which  have  been  unearthed 
in  a  sealed  casket  from  the  supposed  locality  of 
his  temple.  Few  of  the  minor  temples  of  I-em- 
hotep  remain  in  a  state  of  preservation.  One 
small  one  at  Philae  dates  back  to  Ptolemy  IV, 
though  it  carries  a  Greek  inscription  of  the 
time  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  200  B.  C.  In  the 
museum  at  Cairo,  Caton  states,  there  is  a  stele 
from  the  sepulcher  of  Shemkhetnankh,  a  phy- 
sician practising  during  the  5th  dynasty,  who 

13 


Medical  History 

was  the  chief  of  the  Royal  Hospital  of  that  time. 
There  are  many  indications  that  medical  knowl- 
edge of  a  primitive  type  may  be  traced  to  the 
beginning  of  human  existence.  Joseph  testified 
to  the  professional  activity  of  the  medical  men 
who  cared  for  and  embalmed  his  father,  Israel, 
about  1700  B.  C.  (Genesis  50:2). 

The  Papyrus-Ebers  was  discovered  in  1872- 
74  in  a  tomb  in  Thebes.  It  was  written  in  the 
i6th  century  B.  C.  at  Sais,  in  Egypt,  and  con- 
sists of  medical  writings  purporting  to  be 
those  of  the  god  Thoth.  There  are  no  pages 
of  this  manuscript,  portraying  the  medical 
life  of  the  times. 

In  1570  B.  C,  or  thereabouts,  Moses  was  in 
school.  If  we  are  to  believe  Manetho,  quoted 
by  Josephus,  Moses  then  became  a  priest  of 
Osiris  at  Heliopolis  (On  of  the  Bible),  under 
the  name  of  Osarsiph,  later  changed  to  Moses. 
(Against  Apias,  Book  I,  sec.  26.)  Egypt,  under 
the  Pharaohs,  was  at  the  height  of  her  glory. 
Her  hieroglyphic  name  was  Khami,  from  which 
we  have  the  words  alchemy  and  chemistry. 
(Dr.  Grant  Bey,  Ancient  Egyp.  Medicine, 
Internat.  Med.  Congress,  1894.)     From  papyri 

14 


Medical  History 

written  during  the  period  1550  to  1547  B.  C, 
we  learn  again  not  only  of  the  existence,  but  of 
the  phenomenal  strides  of  a  definite  medical 
science.  Among  others  one  Biblos,  an  oculist 
practising  in  Phoenicia,  has  given  us  many 
interesting  data.  The  priests  appear  still  to 
be  the  medical  practitioners  of  the  time.  In 
the  doctor-priesthood  were  found  specialists 
in  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  each  and 
all  of  the  important  organs  of  the  body.  When 
any  one  fell  ill  he  sent  a  description  of  his  ail- 
ment to  the  temple,  and  there  was  sent  a 
physician  by  experience  and  training  adapted 
to  the  treatment  of  that  particular  case.  There 
is  left  no  room  for  doubt  that  the  tendency  to 
specialize  was  then,  as  now,  much  overdone, 
nor  that  in  many  instances  the  patient  suffered 
for  lack  of  a  thorough  preliminary  study 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  whole  man,  in  place 
of  a  primary  as  well  as  final  inspection  from 
the  narrow  viewpoint  and  the  awkward  angle 
of  an  eye  or  an  ear.  Legs  were  amputated, 
the  bladder  was  opened  for  stone,  ophthalmic 
surgery  was  frequent,  cupping  and  blood-let- 
ting were  the  order  of  the  day.  Teeth  were  filled 

15 


Medical  History 

with  gold,  and  artificial  teeth  were  constructed 
which  have  survived  in  mummies  until  the  pres- 
ent. Opium,  strychnia,  squills,  and  other  of 
our  latter-day  remedies  were  known  and 
treasured  as  means  of  treatment  and  cure. 

The  Jewish  Bible  omits  all  mention  of  drugs, 
and  the  Talmud  deals  with  very  few.  Living 
as  the  Jews  did  in  the  midst  of  Egpytian  poly- 
pharmacy, however,  their  healers  must  have 
been  conversant  with  many,  if  not  all,  of  the 
remedies  employed,  and  have  used  them  during 
their  wanderings  through  the  desert.  Manetho, 
through  Josephus,  takes  particular  pains 
(Apion,  Book  I,  sec.  26)  to  inform  us  that  "he 
(Osarsiph,  Moses)  made  such  laws  as  these 
and  many  more  such  as  were  mainly  opposite 
to  the  customs  of  the  Egyptians."  A  striking 
and  intentional  contrast  is  that  between  the 
humiliating  failure  of  the  Chief  Priests,  or 
medical  Magi,  of  Pharaoh's  court  and  the 
inevitable  success  of  the  God  of  Moses  and 
Aaron  (Exodus  7  and  8).  Manetho's  statement 
may  or  may  not  be  taken  to  indicate  his  opin- 
ion that  even  the  sanitary  and  hygienic  laws 
as  laid  down  in  Leviticus  were  contrary  to 

16 


Medical  History 

the  Egyptian  teaching.  Whatever  his  convic- 
tion, we  must  conclude  on  the  basis  of  our  more 
recent  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  sani- 
tary science  that  Moses'  law,  at  least  in  its  medi- 
cal provisions,  harmonizes  very  closely  with  that 
which  he  must  have  learned  from  the  Egyptians 
while  serving  as  a  priest  of  Osiris  at  Heliopolis. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  both  among  the 
Egyptians  and  the  Hebrews  their  accoucheurs 
were  women  (Exodus  i). 

There  is  definite  evidence  of  an  acquaintance 
with  the  simpler  Egyptian  medicinal  agencies 
in  our  own  Bible,  and  more  than  one  instance 
can  be  cited  of  their  employment.  An  illustra- 
tion is  the  famous  treatment  of  King  Hezekiah's 
glandular  ailment  by  Isaiah  (2  Kings  20  :  7) 
by  means  of  a  poultice  of  figs.  Ezekiel  de- 
scribes the  management  of  fractures  in  general 
more  tersely  and  in  terms  more  strictly  to  the 
purpose  than  are  heard  in  many  a  twentieth- 
century  clinic  (Ezek.  30:21).  Solomon  is 
said  to  have  written  an  elaborate  dissertation 
upon  the  treatment  of  disease.  No  student  of 
medicine  or  of  social  economy  who  has  read 
the  plain  doctrines  of  Proverbs  7  and  9  can 

17 


Medical  History 

question  the  depth  and  breadth  of  his  med- 
ical equipment  and  his  sane  knowledge  of  the 
affairs  of  the  time.  His  warning  that  physical 
disease  is  the  twin  sister  of  immorality  is  more 
clearly  sounded  than  we  hear  it  to-day.  He 
recognizes  with  unerring  precision  and  with 
no  show  of  false  modesty  the  mortality  that 
follows  the  trail  of  the  public  man  or  woman, 
rich  or  poor. 

"He  knoweth  not  that  the  dead  are  there; 
That  her  guests  are  in  the  depths  of  Sheol." 

(Proverbs  9  :  18.) 
"She  hath  cast  down  many  wounded: 
Yea,  all  her  slain  are  a  mighty  host. 
Her  house  is  the  way  to  Sheol, 
Going  down  to  the  chambers  of  death." 

(Proverbs  7  :  26,  27.) 

Like  King  Mithridates,  of  a  much  later  date, 
Solomon  not  only  was  a  student  of  the  sci- 
ence of  healing,  but  made  practical  use  of  his 
discoveries. 

Striking  above  all  else  are  the  wonderful  in- 
telligence and  permanence  of  the  sanitary  prin- 
ciples prescribed  by  Jehovah  for  the  protection 
and  preservation  of  the  Children  of  Israel. 
Moses  takes  to  himself  no  credit  for  the  concep- 

18 


Medical  History 

tion  of  the  rules  of  hygiene  and  sanitation  of 
the  Hebrew  camp.  He  states  explicitly  that  they 
were  words  out  of  God's  mouth.  It  detracts 
not  a  whit  from  their  divine  inspiration  that 
Moses  learned  them  in  Egypt  as  a  heathen 
priest.  In  the  beginning  was  assuredly  no 
disease.  Moses  attributes  its  appearance  to 
sin.  For  its  control  the  Jewish  God  provided 
certain  hygienic  measures  that  convict  the 
modern  world  of  conceit  in  its  assumption  that 
it  has  devised  anything  medically  new.  Just 
as  the  Roman  arch  is  now  known  to  have  been 
old  in  Assyria  before  Romulus  was  born,  so  we 
meditate  with  reverence  upon  the  divine  con- 
ception of  sanitary  science  before  the  world 
began.  Careful  discrimination  between  the 
various  types  of  disease  is  laid  down  as  the 
first  essential.  The  study  of  the  given  case 
must  extend  over  days  before  the  final  opinion 
be  given.  Next  comes  the  necessity  of  isolating 
the  individual  patient  in  order  to  safeguard  the 
health  of  the  community.  Finally,  there  is  a 
noteworthy  and  full  recognition  of  the  danger 
of  exposure  to  infectious  disease,  especially 
of  contact  with  the  discharges  from  an  open 

19 


Medical  History 

sore,  or  with  articles  of  daily  use  that  have 
been  contaminated  by  one  suffering  from  such 
an  ailment.  Thorough  disinfection  of  both 
the  patient  and  his  belongings  is  required  of 
the  Jews  by  the  God  who  watches  over  their 
pilgrimage.  When  necessary  for  the  sake  of 
efficacy,  emphasis  was  laid  upon  the  disinfec- 
tion to  the  point  of  burning  all  suspected  ma- 
terials with  fire  (Lev.  13-15).  God,  through 
the  Hebrews,  was  thus  the  first  promulgator 
of  sanitary  science,  and  the  principles  laid 
down  by  Him  have  never  been,  and  cannot  to- 
day be  called  in  question  by  the  greatest  or  the 
wisest  in  the  school  of  modern  medicine.  He 
has  simply  led  us  a  little  farther  on  our  way, 
and  allowed  a  little  deeper  insight  into  His 
reason  and  purpose,  with  a  view  to  the  further- 
ance of  our  own  safeguarding  and  control. 
Fire  still  remains  the  only  certain  disinfectant. 
Isolation  is  the  only  certain  method  of  stamping 
out  contagious  disease.  Detailed  study  of  the 
patient  gives,  as  it  gave  then,  the  only  safeguard 
against  error  costly  alike  to  physician  and 
sufferer.  Time,  and  care,  and  affectionate 
interest  in  the  individual  man  (not  case)  were 

20 


Medical  History 

prescribed  by  Jehovah  as  indispensable  to  suc- 
cessful diagnosis  and  treatment.  They  re- 
main the  surgeon's  most  valued  instruments, 
and  the  physician's  most  practical  means  of 
cure. 


THE   STANDING   AND   INFLUENCE    OF  MEDI- 
CAL  MEN   IN   THE   COMMUNITY 

Prior  to  the  subjection  of  the  Jews  by  the 
Assyrians,  the  Egyptians,  and  the  Romans, 
the  priest  was  the  physician  among  the  Chosen 
People  as  well  as  among  their  conquerors. 
Jehovah  Himself  gave  distinction  to  the  profes- 
sion of  medicine  when  He  proclaimed  to  the 
Jews,  "I  am  the  Lord  that  healeth  thee" 
(Exod.  15  :  26).  He  also  hints  at  the  endless 
character  of  their  task  of  physical  and  moral 
sanitation,  for  in  the  same  connection  He 
promises  the  sons  of  earth  immunity  from 
disease  so  long,  and  presumably  only  so  long,  as 
they  "do  that  which  is  right  in  his  sight." 

In  characterizing  Himself  as  the  Father  of 
Healing  He  seems  to  sanctify  and  ennoble  a 
calling   that  received  a  second  endorsement 

21 


Medical  History 

from  heaven  when  Christ  assumed  the  r61e  of 
Physician,  not  only  of  human  hearts  but  of  the 
physical  infirmities  of  mankind.  In  the  light 
of  this  knowledge  the  modern  medical  diploma 
might  well  give  secondary  importance  to  the 
Hippocratic  influence,  and  emphasize  to  him 
who  enters  upon  the  life  of  a  doctor  the  fact 
that  his  privilege  is  divine. 

Comment  has  already  been  made  upon  the 
fact  that  the  Egyptian  ancestors  of  the  mod- 
ern physician  came  of  a  kingly  race. 

On  studying  Jewish  history  it  soon  becomes 
evident  that  neither  the  time,  the  environment, 
nor  the  course  of  events  was  favorable  to  the 
development  of  Jewish  medical  science.  Even 
with  the  knowledge  absorbed  from  the  Egypt- 
ians, and  though  in  possession  of  the  hygienic 
laws  received  with  the  Tables  of  Stone,  still, 
once  in  the  Promised  Land  and  at  ease,  history 
repeated  itself,  and  the  nation  became  in  all 
respects  degenerate.  The  priesthood  became 
corrupt,  and  being  also  the  physicians  of  the 
nation,  the  priests  degraded  their  double  calling. 
For  centuries  before  Christ  there  is  little  heard 
of  medicine  or  of  medical  men  among  either 

22 


Medical  History- 
Jews  or  Romans.  It  has  already  been  shown 
that  in  Egypt  there  was  a  medical  science  at 
a  very  early  day,  and  that  Hindustan,  or  even 
Assyria,  has  been  thought  by  some  to  have 
been  the  birthplace  of  the  medical  profession. 

Crude  medical  theories  and  practises  entered 
Greece  with  the  coming  of  her  gods  and  heroes. 
Apollo,  under  the  name  of  Paeon,  was  wor- 
shiped as  the  god  of  health  and  of  disease. 
Juno  was  the  guardian  of  the  mother  at  child- 
birth. Greece  knew  no  concrete  medical 
science,  however,  until  the  appearance  of  Hip- 
pocrates about  430  B.  C.  (born  467  ?),  at  which 
time  Grecian  students  were  already  absorbing 
the  medical  and  other  sciences  in  Egypt  and 
Phoenicia  as  have  ours  in  past  years  in  Ger- 
many, Austria,  and  France. 

With  the  Trojan  war  (1183  B.  C.  ?)  appeared 
in  Grecian  literature  the  names  of  the  first 
actual  medical  practitioners.  Melampus,  the 
shepherd-healer,  is  largely  clothed  in  myth. 
Chiron,  the  so-called  Centaur;  was  the  first 
to  be  endorsed  by  any  semblance  of  authority. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  prince  of  Thessaly, 
especially  skilled  in  medicine  and  music,  a 

23 


Medical  History 

knowledge  of  the  art  of  healing  then  being 
considered  essential  in  the  education  of  men 
of  rank.  Chiron  instructed  the  Argonauts  in 
medical  matters;  he  also  taught  the  heroes 
around  Troy. 

His  friend  and  pupil,  Asklepios  (iEscula- 
pius),  followed  him,  and  was  the  first  of  the 
Greeks  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  medi- 
cine as  a  science.  He  was  in  no  sense  the  dis- 
coverer of  medicine,  however.  Of  the  fact 
that  the  early  Greeks  did  not  regard  medical 
science  as  originating  with  themselves,  we  have 
the  following  record: 

In  the  Pseudo-Apuleian  writings  Hermes 
in  speaking  to  Asklepios  says,  "  Thine  an- 
cestor, the  first  discoverer  of  medicine,  hath 
a  temple  consecrated  to  him  in  the  Libyan 
mountains  near  the  Nile,  where  his  body  lies, 
while  his  better  part,  the  spiritual  essence,  hath 
returned  to  the  heavens,  whence  he  still  by  his 
divine  power  helps  feeble  men  as  he  formerly 
on  earth  succoured  them  by  his  art  as  a  physi- 
cian." (Pseudo-Apul.,  Asklepios  C.  37,  quoted 
by  and  from  Caton.)  Asklepios  is  reputed 
to  have  been  an  illegitimate  child,  found  in  the 

24 


Medical  History 

fields  by  a  shepherd,  and  placed  for  safe- 
keeping in  the  care  of  Chiron.  He  was 
named  after  his  death  the  "God  of  Physic," 
and  his  descent  was  traced  by  his  followers 
from  Apollo.  The  two  sons  of  Asklepios, 
Machaon  and  Podalirius,  followed  him  in  the 
practise  of  medicine,  or  rather  of  military 
surgery.  Both  were  famous  in  the  siege  of 
Troy.  The  internal  diseases  did  not  call  so 
much  at  that  time  for  medical  as  magical  skill. 
They  were  looked  upon,  as  in  Jewry,  as  punish- 
ments from  God.  Wounds  were  glorious. 
And  yet  internal  ailments  were  removed  not 
only  by  exorcism  and  charm.  That  the  doctor 
in  his  purely  medical  capacity  was  actively  in 
evidence  even  in  the  earliest  days  of  Greek 
professional  life,  Pindar  proves  by  his  lines  in 
the  Pythian  Ode  (III): 

"  Some  spells  brought  back  to  life; 
These  drank  the  potion  plan'd;  for  these  he  bound 
With  drugs  the  aching  wound; 
Some  leaped  to  strength  beneath  the  helpful  knife." 

For  a  long  time  the  practise  of  medicine 
remained  by  hereditary  control  exclusively  in 
the  family  of  Asklepios.    Finally,  however,  it 

25 


Medical  History 

appears  to  have  passed  into  the  charge  of  the 
Asklepiadas,  who  were  simply  the  priests  of  the 
temples,  and  not  necessarily  the  descendants  of 
the  "God  of  Physic." 

The  practise  of  medicine  appears  at  this 
time  sharply  differentiated  from  surgery.  The 
temples  were  as  truly  hospitals  and  dispen- 
saries as  places  of  worship.  Many  of  those 
who  were  treated  came  from  afar,  and  many 
paid  well  for  the  services  rendered.  They 
were  treated  by  mental  impression,  by  a  dietary 
regime,  by  hydrotherapy,  and  by  means  of 
climate.  The  temples  were  supposedly,  though 
not  always,  placed  in  sites  noted  for  health- 
bringing  qualities.  Votive  tablets  were  erected 
in  the  temples  by  those  healed.  These  tablets 
described  the  progress  of  individual  cases,  and 
the  means  of  cure  employed.  In  this  way  they 
proved  effective  and  permanent  distributors  of 
medical  and  sanitary  knowledge. 

Of  the  character  of  medical  life  several  cen- 
turies following  the  activity  of  the  two  sons  of 
Asklepios  we  have  little  assurance.  Finally, 
however,  two  famous  rival  medical  schools — 
those  of   Cos  and   Cnidus — came  into  view. 

26 


Medical  History 

The  former  was  composed  of  the  Dogmatists, 
or  those  who  followed  the  philosophic  study 
of  medicine.  The  latter  constituted  the  school 
of  the  Empirics,  who  collected  mere  facts  and 
figures  for  use  in  their  practise. 

The  sixth  century  before  Christ  marks  the 
first  real  scientific  progress  in  Grecian  medicine 
as  such.  The  functions  of  the  body  were 
studied,  the  nature  and  origin  of  disease  in- 
vestigated, and  the  means  of  cure  experimented 
with. 

Pythagoras  was  the  first  practical  physician 
of  Grecian  history.  He  was  born  582  B.  C. 
He  traveled  and  studied  in  Egypt  (22  years), 
Chaldea,  and  Eastern  Asia,  report  says,  and 
during  this  period  studied  anatomy,  perhaps 
in  Egyptian  mortuaries,  also  by  dissecting  ani- 
mals, far  in  advance  of  his  day.  He  founded 
and  directed  the  famous  school  at  Crotona, 
to  which  students  came  from  all  parts  of 
Greece  and  Italy. 

He  was  evidently  a  practical  thinker  and  doer 
in  a  mythical,  mystical,  magical,  unpractical  age. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  famous  Pythagorean 
school  or  society.    He  was  also  the  last  of  the 

27 


Medical  History 

Greek  sages  to  employ  hieroglyphics  and  to  use 
the  ancient  language.  He  first  divided  the  year 
into  365  days.  His  school  of  disciples  embraced 
a  philosophic  doctrine  of  great  beauty,  uniting 
God,  the  universe,  time,  and  eternity  in  a 
manner  which  by  its  newness  and  freshness 
fascinated  the  growing  youth  of  his  time.  The 
school  was  persecuted,  however,  and  finally 
scattered  widecast.  Restrictions  being  relaxed, 
the  secrets  of  the  order  were  divulged  and  our 
little  knowledge  of  their  rites  and  beliefs  made 
possible.  The  members  were  called  periodic 
or  ambulant  physicians,  because  they  instituted 
the  practise  of  visiting  patients  in  their  homes, 
as  contrasted  with  the  Asklepiadae  who  prac- 
tised in  and  from  the  temples  only.  Empe- 
docles  was  the  most  famous  disciple  of  this 
school.  His  followers  became  bold  and  then 
dishonest,  and  in  consequence  the  Pythagorean 
Society  disintegrated  while  its  master  still 
lived.  Following  him  came  Democrites  the 
anatomist,  and  Heraclitus,  both  distinguished 
physicians  of  their  time.  Then  Acron  the 
philosopher,  and  Herodicus  who  was  the 
inventor  of  gymnastic  exercises  designed  for 

28 


Medical  History 

use  in  curing  medical  conditions,  and  the 
establisher  of  schools  for  the  teaching  of 
medical  gymnastics  throughout  Greece.  Plato 
found  it  necessary  to  reprove  him  for  prolonging 
to  a  great  length  the  lives  of  the  aged. 

Hippocrates  (born  about  460  B.  C.  in  the 
island  of  Cos)  was  called  by  his  contemporaries 
as  well  as  by  his  successors  the  Father  of 
Medicine.  He  was  the  second  of  seven  mem- 
bers of  a  family  of  this  name.  Humanly 
speaking,  he  originated  many  of  the  theories 
upon  which  medical  science  has  acted  and  de- 
veloped. Little  is  known  of  his  life,  educa- 
tion, or  rise  to  distinction.  His  father,  Hera- 
cleides,  and  Herodicus  were  his  medical 
teachers.  He  is  supposed  to  have  descended 
on  the  male  side  directly  from  Asklepios 
through  a  line  of  practitioners  of  medicine. 
He  traveled  much  in  foreign  countries  in 
order  to  observe  and  learn;  also  in  response 
to  calls  from  prominent  people,  and  to  com- 
bat epidemics.  He  was  a  great  teacher,  and 
his  essential  doctrine  was  the  value  of  the 
accurate  observation  of  phenomena.  He  de- 
scribed   individual    cases,    and    watched    the 

29 


Medical  History 

effect  of  his  treatment.  He  gave  his  pupils 
definite  pictures  of  disease,  and  suggested 
methods  that  are  still  employed.  He  was  the 
first  to  hint  at  physiology,  and  believed  that 
the  first  function  of  the  physician  is  to  assist 
Nature  in  mending  the  ailment  through  the 
discovery  and  removal  of  the  cause.  He  used 
many  of  our  purgatives,  diuretics,  sudorifics, 
he  drew  blood,  he  practised  cupping,  and 
used  ointments,  liniments,  and  plasters,  and 
laid  stress  upon  a  sane  regulation  of  the  diet. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  377  B.  C.  at  the 
age  of  S^.  Much  that  has  been  attributed  to 
Hippocrates  is  really  due  the  Egyptians  in  the 
way  of  credit  for  early  scientific  investigation 
and  knowledge.  With  this  granted,  however, 
he  marks  an  epoch  in  the  practise  of  medicine 
without  which  the  profession  would  enjoy  a  less 
honorable  distinction  and  name.  Draco  and 
Thessalus,  the  two  sons  of  Hippocrates,  founded 
the  first  new  medical  sect,  from  which  grew  a 
school  founded  upon  rational  ideas. 

Plato  (born  429  B.  C.)  and  Aristotle  (born 
384  B.  C.)  took  more  than  a  passing  interest  in 
medicine.     Plato  studied  the  physiological  func- 

30 


Medical  History 

tions  of  the  body,  and  his  pupil,  Aristotle,  was 
the  first  writer  upon  comparative  anatomy  and 
physiology.  The  latter  was  given  $155,000 
by  Alexander  for  the  prosecution  of  research 
work. 

The  School  of  Alexandria  was  founded  about 
300  B.  C.  by  the  Ptolemies.  It  possessed  a 
famous  library  containing  600,000  manuscripts 
upon  general  philosophy  and  upon  medicine. 
The  science  of  healing  was  diligently  cultivated 
in  this  school.  Pergamos  also  boasted  of  a 
library  containing  200,000  volumes. 

Erosistratus  and  Herophilus  (300  B.C.)  were 
both  famous  as  Alexandrian  anatomists.  They 
dissected  the  human  body,  and  the  government 
gave  to  them  the  bodies  of  criminals  to  further 
their  studies. 

About  this  time  the  practise  of  surgery  and 
medicine  was  gradually  differentiated  into  two 
distinct  fields.  There  were,  in  fact,  three 
divisions  in  the  theory  of  practise:  dietetics, 
or  general  medicine;  pharmacy,  including 
drugs  and  minor  surgery;  and  surgery.  Physi- 
cians gradually  tended  to  contract  their  fields 
of  labor  after  the  manner  of  the  Egyptian 

31 


Medical  History 

School,  and  especially  in  the  large  cities  and 
medical  centers,  as  in  the  case  of  Hippocrates 
at  Cos,  a  distinctively  consulting  practise  oc- 
casionally brought  a  prominent  physician  much 
revenue.  The  division  of  opinion  termed  the 
Great  Schism  now  took  place,  shortly  after 
the  founding  of  the  Alexandrian  School.  All 
physicians  associated  themselves  with  either 
the  School  of  Dogmatists  (theorists),  or  with 
the  Empirics  (practitioners)  who  laid  special 
weight  upon  the  phenomena  in  the  given  case. 
None  of  the  writings  of  the  Empirics  remain. 

Such  was  the  Grecian  medical  life,  and  in 
this  widespread  fashion  did  Greece  influence 
medical  practise. 

Notwithstanding  the  contemporaneous  de- 
velopment of  medical  knowledge  in  Egypt  and 
Greece,  Pliny  tells  us  that  "for  six  hundred 
years  Rome  was  without  physicians."  While 
the  statement  is  not  to  be  taken  literally,  of 
course,  it  is  none  the  less  strongly  suggestive 
of  the  decadence  of  medical  practise  in  the 
Eternal  City.  War  had  supplanted  all  other 
science.  The  practise  of  medicine  had  indeed 
fallen  into  such  disrepute,  in  part  owing  to  the 

32 


Medical  History 

severe  and  unsuccessful  methods  employed 
(especially  by  one  Arcagathus,  about  200  B.  C.)» 
that  the  citizens  at  last  forbade  its  continuance 
and  banished  all  the  professors.  When  the 
other  sciences  were  brought  from  Greece  to 
Rome,  medicine  was  not  yet  welcome  and  was 
therefore  delayed  in  regaining  a  foothold.  A 
mystical  worship  of  Asklepios  was  introduced, 
and  for  a  century  the  priests  conducted  what 
little  remained  of  medical  practise  in  the  form 
of  "superstitious  rites  and  ceremonies. '* 

About  100  B.  C.  Julius  Csesar  was  born,  and 
in  49  B.  C.  he  gave  to  the  Grecian  physicians 
the  freedom  of  the  city.  About  96  B.  C.  As- 
klepiades  of  Bithynia,  probably  in  his  twenty- 
second  year,  came  to  Rome  as  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric,  but  was  unsuccessful  in  this  line. 
He  turned  to  medicine,  and,  both  by  gentle 
behavior  and  judicious  handling  of  his  patients 
and  by  special  medical  skill,  became  very  pop- 
ular and  eminent.  His  most  important  meas- 
ures in  treatment  were  diet,  exercise,  and  bath- 
ing, and  (some  one  has  added)  "wine,  flattery, 
and  indulgence."  There  is  considerable  de- 
bate as  to  his  origin,  but  it  has  been  the  common 

33 


Medical  History 

belief  that  he  was  an  emancipated  slave,  and 
that  in  spite  of  this  handicap  he  attained  distinc- 
tion through  his  own  merit  and  the  friendship 
of  Pompey  and  Crassus,  and  was  in  due  course 
given  the  privilege  of  citizenship  in  Rome  and 
in  six  cities  in  Asia  and  Greece.  Vilas  ^  denies 
this,  and  cites  evidence  to  prove  that  he  came 
of  notable  parents  (his  father,  Theodosios), 
and  had  two  distinguished  brothers  (v.  Vilas, 
iEsklepiades,  p.  i8).  He  died  about  29  B.  C, 
in  his  ninety-first  year. 

Following  Asklepiades  came  Themison,  his 
pupil,  who  founded  the  so-called  Methodic 
Sect.  Then  Antonius  Musa,  who,  though  a 
freedman  of  Augustus  Caesar,  was  publicly 
honored  with  a  gold  ring  and  a  bronze  statue. 
Thessalus  followed  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  then 
Soranus  and  Aurelianus,  the  surgeons  Helio- 
dorus  and  Antyllus,  all  before  or  in  Trajan's 
reign,  then  Cleanthes,  Leonidas,  Rufus  of 
Ephesus,  and  Marinus. 

All  of  the  earlier  Greeks  practising  medi- 
cine in  Rome  were  probably  freedmen,  if  not 
slaves.     In  49  B.  C,  as  already  stated,  Julius 

*  Strabo,  Geographica,  Vol.  II,  cap.  566,  p.  795. 
34 


Medical  History 

Caesar  freed  all  the  Greeks,  and  with  their 
emancipation  the  medical  profession  came  out 
of  bondage  into  its  own.  Cornelius  Celsus  was 
born  in  Rome  about  the  time  of  Christ's  birth, 
and  was  probably  the  first  freeborn  Roman 
physician.  All  before  him  were  either  slaves 
or  from  the  lower  stratum  of  society.  The 
fact  that  their  services  commanded  an  honor- 
arium had  relegated  the  physician  and  the 
surgeon  to  the  unpopular  class  of  artisans  that 
strove  for  money  gain.  The  trades  and  man- 
ufactures in  Rome  were  also  in  the  hands 
of  the  slave-class  up  to  this  time.  Although 
Celsus  is  supposed  rather  to  have  been  a  stu- 
dent of  the  science  of  medicine  than  a  thorough- 
going practitioner,  his  writings  have  made 
him  famous,  and  his  medical  knowledge  ap- 
pears to  have  been  far  in  advance  of  his  time. 
Aretaeus  also  was  prominent  in  the  develop- 
ment of  medicine  and  pathology  at  this  period 
(A.  D.  50-90).  Notwithstanding  the  inevitable 
comparison  with  his  contemporary,  Celsus,  he 
was  termed  "the  incomparable  Aretaeus." 
It  remains  simply  to  mention  Pliny,  the  natural- 
ist of  Rome  (A.  D.  23-79) ;  also  Dioscorides, 

35 


Medical  History 

the  Greek  (about  A.  D.  loo),  the  author  of 
a  treatise  on  materia  medica.  Finally,  Clau- 
dius Galen  (A.  D.  130),  the  most  famous  of  all, 
a  Greek  of  rank,  who  settled  in  Rome  and 
restored  to  the  profession  the  distinction  that 
belonged  to  it,  and  its  rightful  place  in  the 
esteem  of  the  people.  His  name  passed  as 
authority  in  many  directions  for  years;  his 
word  was  held  to  be  unimpeachable.  Beside 
being  the  author  of  several  hundred  treatises, 
his  knowledge  of  pathologic  anatomy  (the 
anatomy  of  the  tissues  in  disease)  was  aston- 
ishingly far  in  advance  of  his  day.  One  of 
his  admirers  said  of  him,  "His  fame  can  only 
perish  with  the  science  itself."  Even  his 
religious  beliefs  came  startlingly  near  Chris- 
tianity. 

During  all  of  this  period  of  national  silence, 
the  medical  knowledge  which  the  Jewish  people 
inherited  from  the  Fathers  must  have  been 
ever  in  lively  use.  When  conquered  by  Rome 
the  doings  of  the  nation  became  a  sealed  book. 
The  Jewish  scholars,  however,  became  active 
and  schools  arose  for  "the  preservation  of 
the  law."    All  the  "sciences"  were  taught,  and 

36 


Medical  History 

among  them  that  of  medicine  and  healing. 
The  knowledge  of  medical  practise  displayed 
in  the  Talmud  is  proof  enough  that  the  Jews 
were  well  abreast  of  the  time  in  their  medical 
equipment.  There  are  references  to,  but  no 
definite  record  of,  Jewish  practitioners  in  Rome 
prior  to  the  close  of  the  first  century,  other  than 
of  the  Essenes  and  the  Therapeutse;  and  of 
them  only  as  they  wandered  from  their  homes 
in  Alexandria  and  Judea.  Neither  was  Luke, 
the  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ,  a  native  Jew, 
nor  did  he  practise  his  profession  in  Rome. 
The  very  circumstance,  however,  of  his  com- 
panionship and  medical  attendance  upon  Paul 
would  be  sufficient  proof  of  the  existence  of 
accredited  Jewish  physicians  in  and  near  Jeru- 
salem, were  we  not  certain  that  Luke  was  an 
Asiatic  Greek.  His  choice  of  classical  words 
and  terms  which  are  in  the  Greek  so  strikingly 
medical  is  sufficient  in  itself  to  designate  his 
calling.  His  descriptions  and  case  narratives 
are  also  those  of  the  physician.  The  term 
"beloved  physician"  (Col.  4:14)  speaks  for 
his  type  as  a  man.  We  find  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha, written  in  the  second  century  before 

37 


Medical  History 

Christ,  more  than  one  hint  not  only  to  the 
effect  that  there  were  Jewish  doctors  active  in 
medical  work,  but  witnessing  the  esteem  and 
regard  in  which  they  were  held  by  their  people, 
in  strong  contrast  with  the  Roman  disregard 
of  medical  men  and  their  consignment  to  the 
slave  class.  In  Ecclesiasticus  38  :  i,  2  ap- 
pears the  following  tribute  of  affection  and 
respect : 

"Honour  a  physician  with  the  honour  due 
unto  him  for  the  uses  which  ye  may  have  of 
him  :  for  the  Lord  hath  created  him. 

"  For  of  the  most  High  cometh  healing,  and 
he  shall  receive  honour  of  the  king.'* 

The  third  book  of  the  Mishna  (Talmud) 
none  the  less  takes  exception  to  the  physician, 
and  teaches  that  "  all  ass-drivers  are  wicked, 
camel-drivers  are  honest,  sailors  are  pious, 
physicians  are  destined  for  hell,  and  butchers 
are  company  for  Amalek." 

At  the  close  of  the  first  century  we  find  Rabbi 
Ishmael,  a  physician,  obtaining  the  body  of  a 
woman  for  dissection,  preparing  the  skeleton 
by  boiling,  and  giving  the  number  of  bones  as 
252  (200  being  the  correct  number).     Chanina 

38 


Medical  History 

(died  A.  D.  205),  following  shortly  after,  is 
known  to  have  made  and  inserted  artificial  teeth. 
Rab  (died  A.  D.  247)  also  was  a  deep  student 
of  anatomy,  and  spent  much  of  his  substance 
in  obtaining  subjects  for  dissection.  Samuel 
(died  A.  D.  254),  a  friend  of  Rab,  was  a  prac- 
titioner, an  accomplished  accoucheur,  an  ocu- 
list, and  was  well  honored  for  his  knowledge 
of  astronomy.  When  we  reach  the  fourth 
century  the  Jewish  physicians  are  many  in 
number,  and  we  have  already  passed  out  of 
the  obscurity  of  the  dark  medical  age.  The 
Talmud  was  completed  in  the  fifth  century. 

It  is  a  combination  of  intelligence  in  medical 
matters  and  of  the  grossest  superstition  and 
childish  belief  in  nostrum,  amulet  and  charm. 
"  For  bleeding  of  the  nose,"  says  this  learned 
book,  "  let  a  man  be  brought  to  a  priest  named 
Levi,  and  let  the  name  Levi  be  written  back- 
wards. If  there  be  not  a  priest,  get  a  layman, 
who  is  to  write  backwards  'Ana  pipi  Shila  bar 
Sumki,'  or  *  Taam  dli  bemi  ceseph,  taam  dli 
bemi  pagam; '  or  let  him  take  a  root  of  grass, 
and  the  cord  of  an  old  bed,  and  paper,  and 
saffron,  and  the  red  part  of  the  inside  of  a  palm 

39 


Medical  History 

tree,  and  let  him  burn  them  together,  and  let 
him  take  some  wool,  and  twist  two  threads, 
and  dip  them  in  vinegar,  and  roll  them  in 
ashes,  and  put  them  into  his  nose." 

The  Talmud  released  a  Jew  at  once  from 
any  oath  sworn  to  a  Gentile.  It  permitted  a 
Jewish  physician  "to  heal  Gentiles  only  for 
the  sake  of  the  fee,  or  for  the  practise  of  medi- 
cine, but  it  was  not  allowed  to  save  their  lives 
in  seasons  of  danger." 

On  the  other  hand  the  Talmud  recognizes 
rabies;  it  describes  jaundice  and  ascribes  it  to 
retention  of  bile;  an  emetic  is  endorsed  as  the 
best  remedy  for  nausea;  and  in  many  ways  the 
book  indicates  that  the  knowledge  obtained  in 
the  time  of  Moses  had  never  been  lost,  though 
buried  for  a  time  in  Roman  captivity. 


40 


c  - 
o   S 

U     a; 


II 


LAY  CONDITIONS  SURROUNDING 
MEDICAL  MEN  BEFORE  AND  IN 
THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST 

For  two  hundred  years  prior  to  Christ's 
birth  there  had  been  wars  and  rumors  of  wars, 
conquests  and  captivities,  followed  by  freedom 
and  then  resubjugation.  Especially  was  this 
true  in  the  history  of  the  remarkable  Jewish 
band  that  had  always  held  an  isolated  position 
and  had  kept  itself  so  proudly  distinct  in  w^hat- 
soever  nation  it  was  by  stress  of  circumstances 
forced  to  sojourn.  Following  the  prophets, 
Malachi  being  the  last  (400  B.  C),  there  was 
a  considerable  period  of  political  and  economic 
disturbance  and  unrest.  Religious  persecution 
formed  the  pretext  for  more  than  one  war. 
Jewish  life  and  manners  had  touched  and  in- 
fluenced nearly  every  powerful  nation.  Hardly 
a  notable  world  power  had  failed  in  return  to 
oppress  and  thereby  to  educate  the  Jews. 
Under  Assyrian  rule  (734  B.  C),  then  under 

43 


Conditions  Surroundlne  Medical    Men 


£> 


the  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  Persians,  Greeks, 
Egyptians  again,  the  Syrians,  and  finally  under 
Roman  rule,  Hebrewdom  learned  the  ever- 
wearisome  but  useful  lessons  of  patience  and 
perseverance.  About  626  B.  C.  the  Assyrian 
Empire  collapsed  with  the  death  of  Asurbani- 
pal.  From  610  until  604  B.  C.  the  Jews 
acknowledged  subjection  to  the  Egyptians  un- 
der Necho.  When  in  604  B.  C.  Nebuchad- 
nezzar defeated  the  Egyptians,  not  only  a  por- 
tion of  the  African  Empire,  but  Syria  itself, 
came  under  his  sway.  The  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity followed,  until  in  537  the  Jews  were 
suffered  by  Cyrus  the  Elamite,  who  had 
established  the  new  Persian  Empire,  to  return 
to  their  own  land.  As  a  recognition  of  his 
friendship,  though  rebellion  seethed  on  their 
every  side  they  remained  loyal  to  "the  great 
king,"  and  only  left  the  dominion  of  his  suc- 
cessors when  Alexander  the  Greek  brought 
about  the  fall  of  the  Persian  monarchy. 

His  victories  at  Granicus  in  334  B.  C.  and 
at  Issus  in  333,  and  the  fall  of  Damascus,  Sidon, 
and  Tyre  in  332,  were  followed  by  a  rapid 
march    upon    Jerusalem   with   the   intent   of 

44 


Conditions  Surrounding  Medical    Men 

exacting  a  severe  penalty  for  the  refusal  on 
the  part  of  the  Jews  to  submit  to  his  commands 
from  afar.  Greeted,  however,  outside  the 
gates  of  the  city  by  Jaddua  the  high  priest,  in 
his  apparel  of  hyacinth  and  gold,  Alexander  re- 
called a  dream  warning  him  of  such  a  meeting, 
and  picturing  the  venerable  priest  as  promising 
him  mastery  and  success  in  his  coming  cam- 
paign. He  spared  Jerusalem  and  gave  the 
Jews  privileges  they  had  not  enjoyed  under 
any  of  their  former  conquerors  and  captors. 

Under  Alexander,  Hellenism  and  the  Greek 
language  became  almost  universal.  Three 
years  after  his  death,  in  323  B.  C,  one  of  his 
generals,  Laomedon,  who  had  succeeded  to 
the  control  of  Palestine,  was  defeated  by 
Ptolemy  Soter,  King  of  Egypt,  who  captured 
Jerusalem  and  transported  thousands  of  the 
Jews  to  his  own  land. 

Under  the  Ptolemies  the  Jews  were  a 
peaceful,  happy  people.  In  the  main,  the 
Jews  of  the  "Dispersion"  spoke  the  Greek 
language,  and  for  their  benefit  as  well  as 
for  the  library  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  the 
Septuagint  version  of  the  Scriptures  was  pre- 

45 


Conditions  Surrounding   Medical    Men 


t> 


pared.  Thus  Alexandria  in  Egypt  and  Jeru- 
salem in  Judea  became  the  two  active  centers 
of  Judaism.  Of  the  two,  the  Egyptian  city 
fostered  the  more  progressive  Jewish  life.  The 
new  Judaism  di\ided  itself  into  the  sects  of  the 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees,  the  former  typifying 
the  extremity  of  ritualistic  worship,  and  the 
latter  representing  the  overgrowth  of  Hellen- 
ism. Later,  the  Essenes  held  a  position  of 
some  importance  as  a  third  religious  and  semi- 
medical  sect.  These  Essenes  or  Essaeans  made 
their  appearance  in  the  second  century  before 
Christ.  They  formed  an  order,  as  contrasted 
with  the  more  strictly  political  parties  of  the 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees.  They  are  first  men- 
tioned by  Josephus  in  150  B.  C.  They  num- 
bered about  4,000,  living  as  a  community  wdth 
respect  to  goods  and  money,  with  one  purse,  and 
partaking  of  common  meals.  They  were  ultra- 
religious,  very  moral,  abstemious  and  simple 
in  their  habits  and  tastes.  They  were  temper- 
ate in  all  things.  Their  chief  occupation  was 
agriculture,  though  the  crafts  of  every  kind 
found  representatives  among  them.  They 
wore  white  at  all  times.    They  condemned 

46 


Conditions  Surrounding   Medical    Men 

marriage.  The  priests  prepared  the  food,  and 
asked  God's  blessing  thereupon  before  and 
after  every  meal.  They  were  also  noted  for 
their  powers  of  healing,  and  for  a  considerable 
time  represented  the  active  medical  life  among 
the  Jews.  Little  that  is  definite  is  recorded  of 
them,  and  they  have  faded  away  from  the 
world's  history  almost  as  completely  as  if  they 
had  never  existed. 

In  198  B.  C.  Antiochus  the  Great,  one  of 
the  descendants  of  Seleucus  (a  famous  Alex- 
andrian general),  captured  Jerusalem  from 
the  Ptolemies.  He  gave  the  Jews  many  liber- 
ties and  privileges,  and  transported  many 
thousand  families  from  Babylon  to  Lydia 
and  Phrygia  in  Asia  Minor,  giving  them  full 
freedom  and  land  for  themselves  and  their 
posterity.  His  son,  Seleucus  Philopater,  on 
the  contrary,  sacked  Jerusalem  and  laid  the 
Temple  waste.  In  170  B.  C.  another  Antiochus 
(Epiphanes)  ravished  the  city  with  war,  slay- 
ing thousands,  and  selling  many  more  into 
slavery.  By  him  the  Hebrew  Temple  was 
dedicated  to  Jupiter,  and  the  deliberate  at- 
tempt made  to  extirpate  the  Jewish  religion 

47 


Conditions  Surrounding   Medical    Men 

and  to  destroy  utterly  the  Jewish  Bible.  Twice 
he  ruthlessly  crushed  Jewish  rebellions,  in 
which  80,000  of  the  devoted  people  were  slain 
and  10,000  taken  captive.  Death  was  pro- 
claimed the  penalty  for  practising  the  sacred 
rite  of  circumcision,  for  obeying  the  man- 
dates of  the  Mosaic  law,  or  for  worshiping 
the  God  of  their  fathers.  Many  of  the  Jews 
fled  to  the  wilderness  and  lived  in  caves  in 
order  to  preserve  their  sacred  Scripture  and 
their  very  lives.  At  last  arose  the  Chasidim, 
a  party  in  Jerusalem  that  pledged  itself  to  final 
support  of  the  Mosaic  law  in  opposition  to  the 
Hellenistic  school.  The  national  loyalty  and 
temper  took  fire,  and  under  Mattathias  first, 
and  later  under  the  leadership  of  his  five 
splendid  sons,  freedom  and  Jerusalem  were  re- 
won,  with  the  right  to  worship  for  a  little  time 
according  to  the  custom  of  their  fathers.  Judas, 
the  greatest  of  the  five  Maccabaean  brothers, 
organized  a  well-disciplined  force  out  of  a  city 
rabble,  and  in  165  B.  C.  drove  the  Syrians 
out  of  Judea,  and  rededicated  the  Temple  to 
Jehovah.  Jonathan  and  Simon  Maccabaeus 
followed  him  in  command,  then  Hyrcanus  and 

48 


Conditions  Surrounding  Medical    Men 

Aristobulus,  all  of  the  same  family,  and  all 
equally  successful  in  safeguarding  the  rights 
of  the  Jewish  people.  The  grandsons  of  the  last 
named  engaged  in  a  fierce  quarrel  over  their 
respective  authorities,  and  referred  the  arbitra- 
tion of  the  matter  to  Pompey,  the  Roman 
general,  who  had  just  captured  Damascus. 
He  made  no  immediate  decision,  but  in  63 
B.  C.  himself  appeared  before  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  and  entered  the  Temple.  This  he 
spared,  however,  and  placed  Hyrcanus  II  in 
the  position  of  high  priest.  Hyrcanus  was 
weak  and  lazy.  In  47  B.  C,  a  short  time  before 
the  death  of  Julius  Caesar  (44  B.  C),  Herod 
Antipater,  the  Idumean,  had  been  appointed 
one  of  two  tetrarchs  to  rule  over  Judea.  Civil 
war  broke  out  in  Rome  and  Antipater  was 
left  very  much  to  his  own  free  will  as  to  the 
discharge  of  his  duties.  He  rebuilt  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem,  and  did  much  for  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  city.  In  43  B.  C.  he  was  poisoned, 
and  his  son  Herod,  whom  he  had  appointed 
governor  of  Galilee,  ruled  in  his  stead.  In  40 
B.  C.  the  Parthians  took  Jerusalem,  and  Herod 
was  forced  to  flee  to  Italy.    Having  won  the 

49 


Conditions  Surrounding    Medical    Men 

favor  of  Antony  and  Octavianus,  he  was  ap- 
pointed King  of  Judea  by  decree  of  the  Senate. 
In  37  B.  C,  with  the  aid  of  Roman  legions, 
he  recaptured  Jerusalem  and  entered  on  his 
notable  reign  of  wisdom  yoked  with  fool- 
ishness, kindness  of  heart  linked  to  fiendish 
deviltry,  and  political  sagacity  wed  to  corrupt 
and  sensual  practises.  Repeated  household 
murder  on  his  own  threshold  led  to  his  final 
undoing.  "By  birth  an  Idumaean,  by  pro- 
fession a  Jew,  by  necessity  a  Roman,  by  cul- 
ture and  by  choice  a  Greek,"  he  was  at  once 
a  powerful  and  a  talented  figure,  and,  as  the 
event  showed,  one  with  a  splendid,  wasted 
opportunity.  He  rebuilt  the  Temple,  strength- 
ened the  city  walls,  erected  a  wonderful  palace 
on  the  hill  of  Zion,  and  strove  with  all  his  might 
and  natural  sagacity  to  cement  peaceful  rela- 
tions betw^een  his  Jewish  and  Hellenistic  sub- 
jects. He  was  already  a  soldier,  hunter,  states- 
man, a  benefactor  of  his  people.  Side  by  side 
with  his  better  nature  developed  that  of  the 
tyrant,  the  cunning  intriguer,  the  murderer  of 
relatives  and  friends,  and  the  curse  of  the  city 
which  he  had  begun  to  bless.     His  spies  were 

50 


Conditions  Surrounding    Medical    Men 

everywhere.  Lives  were  forfeited  for  the  crime 
of  standing  or  meeting  together.  During  his 
rounds  at  night  many  a  man  was  marked  for 
the  morrow's  doom.  He  murdered  his  grand- 
father-in-law  Hyrcanus,  his  wife  Mariamne, 
her  mother  Alexandra,  his  brothers-in-law 
Aristobulus  and  Kastobar,  also  Mariamne's 
sons,  Alexander  and  Aristobulus.  He  died  at 
Jericho  B.  C.  4,  four  years  after  Christ's  birth. 
His  death  found  him  an  object  for  pity,  covered 
with  ulcers  and  foul  sores,  the  result  may  be, 
certainly  the  retribution,  of  his  open  immorality 
and  his  life's  bestial  shame.  Some  one  has 
remarked  that  it  is  little  wonder  "  that  Josephus 
should  have  omitted  to  mention  the  swoop  of 
Herod's  soldiers  on  a  few  babes  at  Bethlehem." 
Herod's  ten  wives  yielded  many  claimants  for 
the  succession  to  his  throne.  A  formal  hearing 
was  given  them  all  at  Rome,  and  only  scant 
recognition  was  accorded  the  prayer  of  the 
Jews  that  they  be  delivered  from  the  Herodian 
swarm.  Archelaus,  son  of  Herod's  sixth  wife, 
Malthace,  was  established  ethnarch  over  Judea, 
Idumea,  and  Samaria ;  and  to  Herod  Antipas,  of 
the  same  mother,  were  given  Galilee  and  Perea. 

51 


Conditions  Surrounding  Medical    Men 

Archelaus  speedily  indulged  in  such  flagrant 
misrule  that  he  was  banished  to  Gaul,  and 
Judea  became  part  of  the  prefecture  of  Syria, 
under  a  series  of  Roman  governors.  The 
fifth  in  this  succession  was  Pontius  Pilate,  and 
under  him  Judea  was  a  Roman  province  of 
the  second  rank.  Caligula,  during  his  short 
reign,  removed  Herod  Antipas,  and  placed  a 
grandson  of  Mariamne,  Herod  Agrippa,  in  his 
stead.  Claudius,  in  A.  D.  41,  gave  Agrippa, 
in  addition  to  the  provinces  already  his,  Judea 
and  Samaria,  which,  with  Galilee  and  Perea, 
stretched  into  a  domain  greater  than  that  of 
the  first  Herod.  The  first  Agrippa  died  in 
A.  D.  44,  and  Judea  again  became  a  Roman 
province.  The  second  Agrippa  (the  tetrarch) 
was  placed  by  the  Romans  as  a  spy  upon  the 
Jews  in  Jerusalem.  His  palace  overlooked  the 
market-place  of  the  Temple,  and  over  this 
center  of  intrigue  he  kept  diligent  watch  until 
the  Zealots  lifted  their  walls  so  high  as  to  ob- 
struct his  view.  The  crimes  of  the  Zealots 
soon  became  intolerable.  Throughout  the  city 
they  favored  the  cause  of  revolt  by  means  of 
the  Sicarii,  a  private  band  of  assassins  formed 

52 


Conditions  Surrounding    Medical    Men 

with  a  view  to  ridding  the  Jewish  people  of  all 
individuals  who  favored  a  foreign  rule.  Finally, 
the  priesthood  and  the  nobility  appealed  to 
Rome  for  protection  and  aid.  Florus,  the 
Roman  governor,  sent  a  small  force  to  protect 
the  city,  which,  after  seven  days  of  fighting, 
took  the  citadel,  but  was  soon  forced  to  capitu- 
late and  was  annihilated  in  an  onslaught  violat- 
ing a  truce.  At  this  very  time  a  massacre  of 
Jews  was  taking  place  in  almost  every  town  and 
village  throughout  Syria.  Cestius,  the  Prefect, 
on  learning  the  fate  of  the  Roman  soldiery, 
hurried  with  his  army  to  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 
The  Jews  were  on  the  point  of  throwing  wide 
the  gates,  when,  to  their  astonishment,  he  with- 
drew as  suddenly  as  he  came.  Civil  dissensions 
followed.  Finally,  in  A.  D.  70,  John  of  Gis- 
chala,  Simon  Bar  Gioras,  and  Eleazar,  each 
heading  a  faction,  engaged  in  a  triangular  civil 
war.  In  this  year  Titus  began  his  march  on 
Jerusalem  from  Caesarea.  He  destroyed  the 
city  and  sent  97,000  of  the  people  away  as 
slaves.  Galilee,  Judea,  and  Idumea  were  laid 
waste.  The  markets  of  Rome  were  filled  with 
Jewish  slaves.     Of  those  over  seventeen  years 

53 


Conditions  Surrounding   Medical    Men 

who  survived,  all  were  sent  to  the  mines  of 
Egypt,  to  the  gladiatorial  arena  for  the  shows, 
or  to  be  sacrificed  in  combat  with  the  wild  beasts. 
Little  remains  to  be  said  of  the  period  during 
Christ's  early  years.  Under  Augustus  Caesar 
there  was  a  brief  moment  of  order,  if  not  of 
peace,  which  ended  with  his  death  A.  D.  14. 
In  this  year  Tiberius  compelled  the  Senate  to 
beg  him  to  reluctantly  accept  the  Empire.  For 
t^venty-three  long  years  Rome  and  the  Empire 
wallowed  in  lust  and  bloodshed.  Caligula 
(A.  D.  37)  followed  in  another  wild  four  years 
of  insane  bestiality.  Then  Claudius  (A.  D.  41), 
who,  while  moulded  of  better  material,  was 
bound  hand  and  foot,  mentally  and  morally,  by 
two  intriguing  wives,  Messalina  and  Agrippina, 
one  of  whom  he  finally  executed,  while  the  other 
lived  to  poison  him.  Nero  had  been  groomed 
for  the  occasion,  and  held  ready  for  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  old  king's  death  (A.  D.  54)^ 
and  presented  himself  to  the  soldiers  as  their 
sovereign.  His  frenzied  reign  is  too  historical 
to  require  more  than  passing  mention.  The 
ashes  of  Rome  had  hardly  time  to  cool,  when, 
in  A.  D.  68,  he  half  robbed  himself  of  life,  and 

54 


Conditions  Surrounding  Medical    Men 


i> 


for  the  other  half  was  assisted  by  his  literary 
slave,  Epaphroditus,  who  drove  home  the  dag- 
ger which  the  craven  Emperor  had  placed  at  his 
throat,  though  he  thereupon  had  found  himself 
too  fearful  to  die.  Thus  ended  the  Julian  line. 
With  the  interment  of  Nero  by  the  two  faithful 
nurses  of  his  childhood  let  us  drop  the  curtain 
upon  the  long-drawn  scene  of  violence  and 
shame  in  which  the  science  of  healing,  with 
every  other  art  than  that  of  chicanery  and  vice, 
had  been  well-nigh  lost  to  view. 

Under  "the  meanest  of  the  Herods"  im- 
morality and  the  death  of  scientific  inquiry  had 
been  natural  outgrowths.  Nazareth  and  Gali- 
lee were  in  sight  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
within  easy  hail  of  the  heathen  cities,  Hippos, 
Bethsaida  Julias,  Sepphoris,  and  Tiberias. 
In  Galilee,  on  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  encamped 
thousands  of  Roman  soldiers.  The  influence 
of  the  environment  was  not  for  religion,  and  not 
for  science.  From  Herod  to  Nero  the  amphi- 
theaters ran  with  blood.  Infanticide  was  uni- 
versal, religion  was  corrupt,  the  paintings  in  the 
temples  were  obscene.  The  king's  palace  was 
less  virtuous  than  the  homes  of  the  degraded, 

55 


Conditions  Surrounding    Medical   Men 

Conscience  was  dead.  The  Romans  believed 
the  Jews  to  have  descended  from  lepers  driven 
out  of  Egypt.  So  little  was  known  of  their 
worship  and  so  little  respect  was  had  for  them 
as  a  people  that  it  was  generally  reported,  and 
believed  by  not  a  few,  that  they  worshiped  an 
"ass,"  and  by  others  "the  clouds."  They 
were  regarded  as  a  "nation  of  cheats  and  liars." 
Every  one,  as  well  Jew  as  Roman,  was  weary 
of  life.  Suicide  was  no  longer  a  crime.  On 
the  part  of  the  Jews,  and  strangely  enough  in 
the  premises,  the  Chosen  People  held  an  atti- 
tude of  hatred  and  disdain  toward  every  one. 
This  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  morals  among  the 
Jews  left  no  room  for  pluming  or  self-conceit 
as  to  virtue  or  innocency.  The  Apostle  Paul 
(Romans  i)  astonishes  us  with  his  picture  of 
the  depraved  state  of  the  conquerors  of  his 
nation.  Seneca  speaks  in  his  turn  of  the  Jews 
as  "  Gens  scleratissima,  teterrima,  projectissima 
ad  libidinem."  Paul  reluctantly  confirms  this 
arraignment  as  literally  true  (Romans  2  :  17-24; 
9  :  2-6).  Adultery  and  divorce  were  with  them 
as  truly  as  with  their  Roman  governors  every- 
day matters.    Their  precepts  and  professions 

56 


Conditions  Surrounding  Medical    Men 

in  these  particulars  were  of  the  most  rigid 
order,  but  they  were  skin  deep  in  sincerity, 
and  in  performance  a  hollow  sham.  Hear 
the  Apostle: 

*'  Behold,  thou  art  called  a  Jew,  and  restest 
in  the  law,  and  makest  thy  boast  of  God, 

"  And  know  est  his  will,  and  approvest  the 
things  that  are  more  excellent,  being  instructed 
out  of  the  law ; 

"  And  art  confident  that  thou  thyself  art  a 
guide  of  the  blind,  a  light  of  them  which  are 
in  darkness, 

*'  An  instructor  of  the  foolish,  a  teacher  of 
babes,  which  hast  the  form  of  knowledge  and 
of  the  truth  in  the  law. 

"Thou  therefore  which  teachest  another, 
teachest  thou  not  thyself?  thou  that  preachest 
a  man  should  not  steal,  dost  thou  steal  ? 

"  Thou  that  sayest  a  man  should  not  com- 
mit adultery,  dost  thou  commit  adultery  ?  thou 
that  abhorrest  idols,  dost  thou  commit  sacri- 
lege? 

"Thou  that  makest  thy  boast  of  the  law, 
through  breaking  the  law  dishonourest  thou 
God? 

57 


Conditions  Surrounding  Medical    Men 

"  For  the  name  of  God  is  blasphemed  among 
the  Gentiles,  through  you,  as  it  is  written." 

And  again: 

*'  I  have  great  heaviness  and  continual  sor- 
row in  my  heart. 

*'  For  I  could  wish  that  myself  were  accursed 
from  Christ  for  my  brethren,  my  kinsmen  ac- 
cording to  the  flesh: 

"  Who  are  Israelites;  to  whom  pertaineth  the 
adoption,  and  the  glory,  and  the  covenants, 
and  the  giving  of  the  law,  and  the  service  of 
God,  and  the  promises." 

And  then,  hoping  still  for  the  future  of  his 
people,  Paul  says,  '*  For  they  are  not  all  Israel, 
which  are  of  Israel." 

A  nation  befriended  by  Julius  Caesar,  ex- 
pelled by  Claudius,  constantly  turbulent  and 
rioting,  licentious  and  insinuating,  they  were 
both  sinned  against  and  sinning.  Gentiles  and 
critical  Jews,  even  as  we  to-day,  were  in  sad 
and  crying  need  of  the  cleansing  blood  of  Him 
whom  they  hung  on  a  tree. 


58 


f^i\<]    ^ 


w    '-^■ 


c  ■=  M 


Ill 

THE  ASKLEPIAN  TEMPLES  OF 
HEALTH 

By  drawing  upon  semi-mythology  we  ascer- 
tain that  Asklepios  (or  iEsculapius,  as  the 
Romans  had  it)  was  born  from  the  union  of 
Apollo  and  the  nymph  Koroni  (Coronis)  in  the 
Hieron  valley,  near  the  site  of  the  present  village 
Koroni,  which  by  its  name  commemorates  the 
mother  of  the  "  God  of  Physic."  The  story  runs 
that  because  of  Pluto's  complaint  that  Hades 
was  being  rapidly  depleted  of  its  inhabitants 
by  the  skill  of  Asklepios  and  by  his  cures,  the 
latter  was  killed  by  a  bolt  from  Zeus.  At  the 
petition  of  Apollo  he  was  given  a  place  among 
the  stars.  Hieron,  his  mythical  birthplace,  was 
six  miles  from  Epidaurus,  afterward  the  center 
of  influence  for  the  medical  teaching  and  wor- 
ship of  Asklepios. 

A  much  more  homely  and  probably  more 
accurate  account  of  his  origin  has  already  found 
mention  (pp.  24,  25).    Tradition  has  it  that  he 

61 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

was  an  illegitimate  child,  deserted  and  left  in 
the  fields,  found  there  by  a  shepherd,  and  taken 
in  charge  by  Chiron,  one  of  the  prominent 
figures  in  the  siege  of  Troy,  1183  B.  C.  We 
know  little  of  Chiron  himself  except  that  he 
was  probably  a  Prince  of  Thessaly,  and  that 
he  practised  surgery  in  the  army  encamped 
around  Troy.  He  also  instructed  the  heroes 
in  the  care  of  their  wounds.  Asklepios,  his 
pupil  and  friend,  also  devoted  himself,  even 
more  exclusively,  to  the  practise  of  the  art  of 
healing.  As  we  now  read  of  him  he  is  un- 
doubtedly a  composite  character,  partly  his- 
torical, partly  mythical.  Many  of  his  charac- 
teristics and  the  more  valuable  features  of  his 
system  of  healing  were  probably  adapted  from 
the  then  well-known  history  of  the  Egyptian 
priest-physician,  I-em-hotep  of  3500  B.  C. 
Asklepios  is  usually  pictured  as  an  aged, 
bearded  figure,  leaning  upon  a  staff,  around 
which  coils  a  serpent.  His  two  sons,  Machaon 
and  Podalirius,  continued  the  succession  of 
medical  men  in  the  family  and  were  in  charge 
of  one  of  the  most  noted  of  the  so-called 
Temples  of  Health,  that  of  Piraeus  in  Thessaly. 

62 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

For  many  years,  it  is  said,  the  Asklepian  family 
furnished  the  only  source  of  supply  of  medical 
men.  Finally,  we  begin  to  hear  of  priests  and 
physicians  engaged  in  the  care  of  the  temples 
of  health  who  had  no  blood  connection  with 
the  Asklepian  family,  and  were  simply  united 
in  a  similar  enterprise  and  endeavor.  The 
name  Asklepiadse  was  still  employed  in  charac- 
terizing them  for  many  years,  and  it  was  ever 
their  custom  to  pretend  a  trace  of  descent  from 
the  God  Asklepios,  however  patently  flimsy 
the  claim. 

The  temples  were  both  hospitals  and  places 
of  worship,  perhaps  partaking  more  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  modern  German  heilstdtte  than  of 
the  religious  center.  The  worship  of  Askle- 
pios, however,  formed  an  important  part  of 
the  treatment  of  disease,  and  this  feature  must 
neither  be  minimized  nor  overlooked  in  judging 
the  medical  customs  of  the  times.  The  entire 
system  was  an  outgrowth  from,  and  in  some 
features  a  further  development  of,  the  temple 
scheme  of  medical  practise  well  known  cen- 
turies before  in  Egypt,  and  conducted  with 
great  success  by  I-em-hotep  and  his  successors. 

63 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

In  all,  there  were  considerably  over  three 
hundred  Asklepian  temples  of  health  in  Greece 
alone.  Every  town  and  city  of  any  size  could 
show  such  an  institution  within  and  usually 
on  the  outer  margin  of  its  borders.  The  most 
famous  of  these  was  the  Hieron,  near  Epi- 
daurus.  This  temple  constituted  the  center  of 
the  worship  of  Asklepios.  All  other  asklepia 
were  under  the  direction  of  the  Boule,  the 
governing  Council  of  the  Hieron,  and  were 
subject  to  its  decrees.  At  Piraeus,  Delphi, 
Pergamos,  Tricca,  Troezen,  Rhodes,  Cos,  Cni- 
dus,  and  Athens  were  famous  health  temples, 
some  of  which  flourished  even  centuries  after 
the  opening  of  the  Christian  era. 

Two  of  these  were  very  popular — Cos  (the 
home  and  early  center  of  activity  of  Hippo- 
crates) and  Cnidus — and  were  the  seats  of 
rival  medical  schools.  In  the  island  of  Cos 
flourished  the  Dogmatists,  or  students  of  the 
philosophy  of  medicine.  In  Cnidus  developed 
the  School  of  Empirics,  who  made  a  point  of 
collecting  data  from  their  cases,  tabulating 
them,  and  using  them  as  generalizations  in 
the  studv  and   treatment  of  other  patients. 

64 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

The  former  of  the  two  schools  attained  the 
greater  prominence  from  the  fact  that  in  its 
hereditary  succession  of  priest-physicians  was 
born  Hippocrates  (467  B.  C?)  who  instituted 
principles  and  engaged  in  a  practical  applica- 
tion of  medical  thought  and  theory  far  in 
advance  of  his  time.  He  was  reared  in  the 
worship  of  Asklepios,  and  though  his  direct 
origin  is  not  known  he  is  supposed  to  have 
descended  from  the  god.  His  reputation  and 
actual  accomplishments  were  such  as  to  place 
him  among  the  figures  of  history,  and  to  win  for 
him  the  name  "Father  of  Medicine." 

The  ruins  of  the  asklepion  at  Cos  have  been 
uncovered  during  the  past  few  years.  Hip- 
pocrates did  not  confine  his  medical  work  to 
the  limits  of  the  island  of  Cos  or  to  the  Temple 
of  Health.  He  traveled  widely,  practising  hy- 
giene and  medicine  over  an  extensive  territory, 
his  fame  extending  before  and  after  him. 
His  writings  contain  much  that  is  still  of  value. 
He  was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates,  and  lived 
in  a  brilliant  intellectual  age.  When  we  re- 
member that  he  trephined  the  skull  for  brain 
injuries,  opened  the  chest  to  evacuate  coUec- 

6s 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

tions  of  fluid,  and  treated  with  intelligence  both 
dislocations  and  fractures,  the  thought  deepens 
that  he  measured  up  easily  in  comparison,  in- 
tellectually and  practically,  with  the  distin- 
guished men  of  this  day.  He  spent  the  latter 
portion  of  his  life  in  Thessaly,  and  died  at 
Larissa  at  some  time  between  400  and  377 
B.C. 

No  other  asklepion  rivaled,  either  in  size  or 
reputation,  that  of  the  Hieron  of  Epidaurus. 
The  town  was  then  a  fashionable  resort,  and 
to  it  flocked  not  only  sick  folk,  but  pleasure- 
seekers  in  great  numbers. 

The  Hieron,  just  out  of  the  town,  which  is 
now  called  Pidhavro,  was  about  a  mile  in  di- 
ameter. It  contained  the  Temple,  with  its 
columned  abaton  or  open-air  dormitory,  its 
theater  holding  about  12,000  people,  its  sta- 
dium for  athletic  games,  a  famous  art  gallery 
and  collection,  and  a  splendid  library.  The 
theaters  at  Delphi  and  Tauromenon  also  held 
about  12,000,  and  often  overflowed  with  the 
spectators  of  the  chariot  or  foot  races,  or  with 
those  who   enjoyed   music   or   the  play.     At 

Athens  and  at  other  of  the  asklepia  there  was 

66 


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General  plan  of  an  Asklepion. 

(Reproduced  from  Caton.) 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

a  deep  pit  built  for  the  sacred  serpents,  also  a 
deep  well  of  crystal  water  for  bathing  the  sup- 
pUant  on  his  entering  the  portal.  Here  and 
there  outdoors  were  shelter-seats  of  beautiful 
white  marble,  protecting  the  patient  from  the 
wind,  but  enabling  exposure  to  the  air  and  sun. 
Caton  speaks  of  several  that  are  still  intact,  in- 
scribed with  the  names  of  the  priests  whose 
they  were,  and  by  whom  they  were  constantly 
used.  The  temple  contained  the  famous  ivory 
and  gold  statue  of  Asklepios.  The  entire 
Hieron,  not  merely  the  temple,  was  dedicated 
to  the  god,  and  was  intended  to  contribute  to 
the  influence  of  his  worship.  An  asklepion, 
however,  in  certain  instances  comprised  only 
one  building.  Usually  the  buildings  formed 
a  group  surrounding  a  mineral  spring,  with 
a  sacred  grove  of  evergreen  hard  by,  or  even 
surrounding  the  entire  system.  The  site  was 
chosen  with  reference  to  the  supposed  salu- 
brious qualities  of  the  air;  though  in  the  partic- 
ular instance  of  Epidaurus  this  was  ill-advised, 
and  the  location  poorly  suited  to  the  purpose. 
Its  climate  was  neither  healthy  nor  dry.  The 
site  is  seven  miles  or  more  from  the  ocean,  in 

69 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

a  damp  valley,  surrounded  by  low  mountains. 
The  town  itself  is  about  500  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  As  compared  with  this,  the  asklepion  at 
Athens  was  three  miles  from  the  sea  and  300 
feet  above  the  sea  level.  That  at  Cos  was  on  an 
island,  two  miles  from  the  sea  and  320  feet  above 
its  level.  Behind  it  were  the  mountains,  rising 
to  a  height  of  2800  feet.  The  air  was  invigorat- 
ing and  healthful,  and  frequent  earthquakes 
the  only  serious  drawback.  Cnidus  was  on  the 
sea,  Delphi  eight  miles  from  the  shore,  Perga- 
mos  twenty  miles,  Piraeus  also  near  the  coast. 
From  Epidaurus  went  in  all  directions  priests, 
trained  in  the  Asklepian  rites  and  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  asklepion,  to  found  new 
centers  for  worship  and  for  the  practise  of  heal- 
ing. 

THE  PRIEST-PHYSICIANS 

The  Asklepiads  were  in  charge  of  the  temples 
of  health,  the  administration  of  which  included 
both  medical  and  lay  offices.  At  first  the 
priests  were  required  to  show  direct  descent 
from  Asklepios.  Later  their  name  simply  in- 
dicated that  they,  like  the  physicians  of  the 
Egyptian  temples,  were  the  regular  practitioners 

70 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

of  the  day.  It  was  taught  that  the  art  of 
healing  was  a  gift  from  the  gods,  and  its  exer- 
cise was  not  only  attended  by,  but  formed  a 
part  of,  the  regular  worship.  Praxagoras  was 
the  last  of  the  Asklepiads. 

The  priests  were  all  bound  by  the  Asklepian 
or  by  the  Hippocratic  oath,  which  follows: 

"I  swear  by  Apollo,  the  physician,  by  Askle- 
pios  (iEsculapius),  by  Hygeia,  by  Panacea, 
and  by  all  gods  and  goddesses,  that  I  will  fulfil 
religiously,  according  to  the  best  of  my  power 
and  judgment,  the  solemn  vow  which  I  now 
make.  I  will  honor  as  my  father  the  master 
who  taught  me  the  art  of  medicine;  his  children 
I  will  consider  as  my  brothers,  and  teach  them 
my  profession  without  fee  or  reward.  I  will 
admit  to  my  lectures  and  discourses  my  own 
sons,  my  master's  sons,  and  those  pupils  who 
have  taken  the  medical  oath;  but  no  one  else. 
I  will  prescribe  such  medicines  as  may  be  best 
suited  to  the  cases  of  my  patients,  according  to 
the  best  of  my  judgment;  and  no  temptation 
shall  ever  induce  me  to  administer  poison.  I 
will  religiously  maintain  the  purity  of  my 
character  and  the  honor  of  my  art.    I  will  not 

71 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

perform  the  operation  of  lithotomy,  but  leave 
it  to  those  to  whose  calling  it  belongs.  Into 
whatever  house  I  enter,  I  will  enter  it  with  the 
sole  view  of  relieving  the  sick,  and  conduct  my- 
self with  propriety  towards  the  women  of  the 
family.  If  during  my  attendance  I  happen  to 
hear  of  anything  that  should  not  be  revealed, 
I  will  keep  it  a  profound  secret.  If  I  observe 
this  oath  may  I  have  success  in  this  life,  and 
may  I  obtain  general  esteem  after  it;  if  I  break 
it,  may  the  contrary  be  my  lot." 

The  government  of  each  asklepion  was  sub- 
ject to  the  Boule  (the  Council)  at  Epidaurus, 
under  which  it  was  a  hierarchy  on  a  small  scale. 
The  Hiereus,  or  priest,  was  elected  annually  and 
often  re-elected  as  the  official  head  of  the  com- 
munity. In  certain  instances  he  was  a  physi- 
cian, in  others  only  a  priest.  Occasionally  he 
combined  the  offices  as  chief  medical  and  lay 
administrator. 

Under  the  hiereus  were  the  Dadouchoi,  or 
torchbearers,  who  were  secondary  or  sub- 
ordinate priests.  Then  the  Pyrophoroi,  or  fire- 
carriers,  whose  duties  were  to  light  and  ex- 
tinguish the  sacred  fire.     Then  the  Nakaroi, 

72 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

whose  duties  are  not  certain,  though  we  know 
that  they  lighted  and  later  extinguished  the 
lights  before  the  patients  consigned  themselves 
to  sleep  in  the  abaton.  The  Kleidouchoi,  or 
keybearers,  were  next  in  rank,  and  though  mere 
porters  at  first,  subsequently  assumed  minor 
priestly  functions.  After  them  the  Hierom- 
nemones,  the  financial  officers  or  clerks  of  the 
establishment.  Finally,  the  Kaniphoroi,  or 
basket  bearers,  and  the  Arrephoroi,  or  carriers 
of  holy  things,  both  of  these  being  orders  of 
priestesses  serving  in  the  temple. 

THE   PATIENTS   OR   SUPPLIANTS 

Those  who  knocked  at  the  portals  of  the 
temples  of  health  represented  the  sick,  de- 
formed, injured,  the  blind,  the  hysterical,  the 
mentally  ailing,  and  that  ever-present  clientele 
of  unfortunates  with  imaginary  disorders. 
They  were  an  innumerable  throng.  The 
majority  of  the  sleeping  abatons  would  accom- 
modate not  above  125  patients.  The  remain- 
der must  have  found  accommodations  in  the 
neighboring  lodging  houses,  in  the  adjoining 
towns,  or  in  tents  erected  near  by.    Probably 

73 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

each  prosperous  asklepion  was  continually  in 
touch  with  several  hundred  sick  folk,  some 
housed  within  its  limits,  others  lodging  at  a 
greater  or  less  distance.  During  the  festivals, 
or  oftentimes  attending  the  regular  athletic 
games,  thousands  came  from  all  quarters  in 
Greece,  and  the  great  theaters  were  filled. 
The  friends  and  relatives  of  the  invalids  un- 
doubtedly then  as  now  required  attention. 
There  was  a  constant  succession  of  athletes, 
moreover,  traveling  from  place  to  place  as 
needed  for  the  amusement  and  diversion  of  the 
patients  and  visitors.  Following  the  fall  of 
Troy  and  the  victory  over  Priam,  the  Greeks 
spread  in  all  directions  over  the  northern  and 
southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 
worship  of  Asklepios,  and  the  treatment  of  the 
sick  through  the  agency  of  his  temples  and 
votaries  thus  extended  through  various  por- 
tions of  Italy,  Spain,  Asia,  and  Africa.  Until 
the  Christian  era,  and  in  certain  sections  until 
the  reign  of  Constantine  (A.  D.  350),  the 
"  god  of  physic"  held  sway,  and  his  worship  no 
doubt  proved  more  than  a  makeshift  godsend 
to  many. 

74 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

THE   RITES    AND    FORM    OF   TREATMENT 

On  the  arrival  of  a  patient  or  suppliant  at  the 
^  gate  of  the  asklepion  he  was  interviewed  at  once 
■  by  the  hieromnemones,  the  financial  agents  of 
the  temple.  The  terms  of  treatment  and  the 
accommodations  were  formally  adjusted  prior 
to  final  admission.  A  bath  was  then  had  in  the 
sacred  fountain  at  the  portal.  Inunctions  with 
methodical  frictions  and  shampooings  further 
prepared  the  body  for  treatment  by  the  god. 
Sacrifices  were  then  offered,  by  the  poor  a  little 
cake,  by  the  rich  a  sheep,  or  goat,  or  a  pig.  A 
lecture  was  then  listened  to,  elucidating  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  temple.  Prayers 
were  offered  to  Asklepios,  followed  by  another 
sacrifice.  The  patient  was  often  wrapped  in 
the  skin  of  the  sacrificial  animal.  The  day  was 
spent  in  the  open  air  at  exercise,  or  in  repose, 
according  to  the  inclination  of  the  patient.  At 
night-time  the  bed  was  carried  into  the  abaton, 
and  preparation  made  for  sleep,  and  for  the 
visitation  of  the  god.  The  suppliants  placed 
their  small  gifts  upon  the  altar,  whereupon  the 
priest  would  enter,  recite  the  evening  prayers  to 
Asklepios,  collect  the  various  gifts,  and  retire. 

75 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

The  lights  were  then  extinguished  by  the  naka- 
roi,  and  the  patients  bidden  to  sleep.  During  a 
dream  the  daughters  or  the  wife  of  the  god  were 
supposed  to  suggest  remedies  for  the  cure  of 
the  disease.  Oftentimes  Asklepios  himself  was 
said  to  appear  and  to  apply  medicaments,  or 
even  perform  surgical  operations.  There  was, 
no  doubt,  flagrant  fraud  performed  in  the  treat- 
ment of  a  public  that  was  no  more  keen  than 
our  own  in  perceiving  the  setting  of  the  tide  of 
imposition  and  humbuggery.  The  mind  of 
the  patient  was  deliberately  worked  upon  to  the 
point  of  stimulating  hallucinations,  and  a 
mental  conviction  was  at  once  pronounced  a 
miracle  cure.  One  of  the  votive  tablets  donated 
and  placed  by  a  patient  in  an  Asklepian  temple 
(cited  by  Caton)  reads  to  the  effect  that  in  the 
treatment  of  a  sufferer  from  dropsy  the  god 
*'  first  cut  off  the  patient's  head,  then  held  him 
up  by  the  heels,  and,  the  fluid  having  all  run 
out,  the  patient's  head  was  put  in  place  again.'* 
Such  an  operation  must  have  required  subHme 
self-faith  on  the  part  of  the  surgeon-deity,  and 
heroic  confidence  on  the  part  of  the  victim  in 
the  god's  reliability  and  skill. 

76 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

A  somewhat  less  ridiculous  tablet  (also  cited 
by  Caton)  relates  to  posterity  that  "A  man 
from  Toronoea  is  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  a 
stepmother  who  is  not  fond  of  him.  She  intro- 
duces a  number  of  leeches  into  the  wine  he 
drinks.  Being  of  a  confiding  temperament  he 
swallows  them  unsuspectingly;  but  the  results 
are  so  serious  that  he  is  obliged  to  visit  the  god. 
Asklepios  cuts  open  his  chest  with  a  knife, 
removes  the  leeches,  sews  up  the  chest  again, 
and  the  patient  returns  home  the  next  day." 

The  simplicity  and  the  ingenuousness  of  this 
fraud  won  for  it  success,  just  as  similar  bold- 
ness of  imposition  is  eminently  successful  to- 
day. I  learn  from  Dr.  Alfred  Emerson,  of 
Chicago,  of  a  kindred  incident  recently  ex- 
perienced by  him  in  Japan.  An  old  woman 
was  told  by  her  physician  that  she  was  pos- 
sessed of  a  fox.  Indeed,  no  one  needed  per- 
suasion, since  the  raucous  laughter  of  the 
fox  could  be  heard  in  derision  of  all  attempts 
to  rid  him  of  his  lodging  within  the  woman's 
breast.  Finally,  an  expedition  was  sent  to  the 
hills  to  find  and  fetch  an  exorciser  who  could 
deal  effectively  with  the  obstreperous  beast. 

77 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

He  came,  and  in  tones  of  ferocity  bade  the 
fox  come  out  of  the  woman.  At  once,  yielding 
to  the  power  of  the  exorciser,  he  came  out  of 
her  and  went  his  way. 

Among  the  more  sensible  and  practical 
measures  employed,  and  those  upon  which  the 
splendid  reputations  of  the  temples  of  health 
actually  relied  were  many  that  are  recognized 
as  indispensable  to-day.  The  change  of  climate, 
with  freedom  from  old  habits  and  excesses, 
regulated  exercise  in  games,  gymnastics,  mas- 
sage, and  passive  movements,  regulation  of 
the  dietary  following  purgation  and  twenty- 
four  hours  of  complete  fasting,  rest,  diversion, 
religious  thought,  and  superstitious  conviction, 
sun  baths — above  all,  the  personal  magnetism 
of  the  physician:  here  is  a  list  of  remedial 
measures  that  is  and  always  has  been  the  arma- 
ture of  the  successful  healer.  Many  medica- 
ments were  employed,  among  them  those 
known  and  used  to-day,  such  as  hemlock, 
squills,  parsley,  lime-water,  opium,  elysson 
(biscutella) ,  which  cured  hydrophobia,  cori- 
ander seed,  rosemary,  wild  cucumber,  mule's 
fern,  saffron,  and  black  hellebore.     Venesec- 

78 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

tion,  purgation,  and  emetics  were  all  familiar 
measures,  as  they  had  been  with  the  Egyptians. 

Among  the  therapeutic  means  of  diversion 
were  music  and  architecture,  paintings  and 
statuary,  religious  services,  the  theater,  and 
athletic  games,  any  or  all  of  which  were  em- 
ployed with  great  benefit  in  suitable  cases. 
The  religion  of  the  Greeks  precluded  the 
further  treatment  of  a  patient  who  was  either 
dying  or  about  to  be  delivered  of  a  child.  The 
moribund  and  the  parturient  were  forbid- 
den shelter  in  a  sacred  enclosure.  While  the 
merely  ill  patient  received  the  utmost  kindness 
and  care,  the  dying  were  carried  to  the  hillside 
and  deserted.  Asklepios  had  refused  them 
help,  and  no  priest  could,  under  the  circum- 
stances, countenance  or  engage  in  further 
treatment.  Not  until  the  reign  of  Antoninus 
Pius  (A.  D.  138)  was  any  provision  made  for 
these  two  classes  of  sufferers.  Then  was  built 
a  house  for  the  dying,  as  well  as  the  first  mater- 
nity. 

The  sacred  serpents  constituted  an  im- 
portant feature  in  the  regime.  Long  before 
the  time  of  Moses,  the  serpent  was  the  sym- 

79 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

bol  of  life.  In  many  of  the  Eastern  tongues 
the  word  signifying  life  and  serpent  is  one 
and  the  same.  Ebers  says  there  was  a  serpent 
in  every  temple  in  Egypt  (Uarda,  vol.  ii,  page 
38).  The  Asklepian  serpents  are  said  to  have 
been  of  a  large,  harmless,  yellow  variety  (Ela- 
phis  Asklepii),  now  extinct,  and  by  others  they 
are  believed  to  have  been  a  species  related  to 
our  blacksnake  or  "racer."  Whatever  the 
type,  they  were  harmless,  easily  domesticated, 
and  were  trained  to  lick  the  ailing  parts  or  even 
the  open  sores.  Both  they  and  the  temple  dog 
(representing  faithfulness  and  watchfulness), 
and,  in  some  localities,  the  cock  (typifying  the 
alertness  of  the  early  morn),  were  held  pecul- 
iarly sacred  to  the  deity  Asklepios.  The  staff 
(originally  the  sacred  mountain  surrounded  or 
encircled  by  the  serpent)  and  serpent,  often  ac- 
companied by  the  dog,  form  the  usual  symbol 
of  the  medical  fraternity  to  this  day.  These 
features  are  to  be  noted  in  almost  all  of  the 
votive  tablets,  and  in  many  of  the  valuable 
inscriptions  dated  at  this  period. 

In  293  B.  C.  there  was  a  pestilence  in  Rome. 
A  galley  was  sent  to  the  Hieron  at  Epidaurus, 

80 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

and  one  of  the  sacred  serpents  obtained.  On 
its  arrival  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber  the  snake 
was  loosed  upon  the  island  in  the  river,  and  dis- 
appeared forthwith.  With  its  going  disap- 
peared also  the  pestilence  at  Rome.  A  stone 
galley  was  thereupon  built  on  and  about  the 
island,  the  stern  of  which  still  remains,  with  its 
serpent  and  carved  figure  of  Asklepios,  which 
originally  stood  in  a  temple  dedicated  to  the 
god.  A  church,  San  Bartolomeo,  now  occu- 
pies the  site  of  this  temple. 

Up  to  A.  D.  350,  and  perhaps  much  later,  the 
Asklepian  temples  were  busily  employed,  and 
their  furniture  and  attendants  kept  in  order. 
One  by  one  they  were  allowed  to  sink  into 
ruins.  In  certain  instances  the  rites  and  wor- 
ship of  Asklepios  were  substituted  by  a  service 
in  harmony  with  the  Christian  Church,  while 
the  health-features  were  retained.  No  doubt 
the  discarding  and  destruction  of  most  of  the 
asklepia  were  the  result  of  the  misguided 
overzeal  of  Constantine,  the  early  Christian 
Church,  and  of  the  Christians,  who  would  have 
spared  them  as  markers  of  time  had  they  had 
the  gift  of  prevision  and  realized  their  interest 

81 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

and  value  to  doctors  and  laymen  of  a  later 
day. 

THE  FEES 

It  would  seem  as  though  money  was  regarded 
before  Christ's  time  in  much  the  same  fashion 
as  to-day,  by  no  means  as  a  thoroughly  evil 
thing,  rather  as  one  to  be  desired  and  to  be  had 
at  any  or  all  cost. 

While  the  poor  were  treated  in  the  temple 
hospitals  oftentimes  free  of  cost  to  themselves, 
far  more  often  were  the  well-to-do  notified  that 
a  larger  offering  would  obtain  the  physical 
relief  which  the  smaller  contribution  had  failed 
to  secure.  The  fee  was  not  charged  in  an  ac- 
count as  such.  Emolument  came  in  the  form 
of  a  votive  offering  to  the  god  and  to  the  temple. 
As  long  as  the  poor  man  could  obtain  treatment 
at  the  cost  of  a  tiny  cake,  it  mattered  little  to 
the  deity  that  the  rich  were  mulcted  heavily  in 
order  to  strike  an  even  balance.  Jewels,  coins, 
or  articles  of  value  of  any  description  were 
placed  in  tribute  to  the  god,  and  with  equal 
certainty  were  these  offerings  put  to  practical 
use  by  his  representatives  in  the  form  of  the 
priest  and  his  subordinates.     For  a  long  period 

82 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

whatever  there  was  of  impropriety  in  the  medi- 
cal fee  system  of  Greece  and  other  countries, 
was  not  an  indiscretion  of  the  individual,  but 
of  the  god.  This  not  only  saved  the  affair,  but 
assisted  in  closing  the  eyes  of  the  people  to  the 
rather  unnecessarily  ceremonious  depletion  of 
their  purses.  A  little  later  the  Grecian  surgeon 
and  physician  became  noted  for  the  brazen  man- 
ner in  which  he  extorted  money  from  his  unfor- 
tunate dependents.  Pliny  refers  to  such  a  state 
of  affairs,  especially  among  the  physicians  in 
Rome  about  A.  D.  55:  "For  the  cure  of  King 
Antiochus — to  give  us  our  first  illustration  of 
the  profits  realized  by  the  medical  art — Erasis- 
tratus  received  from  his  son.  King  Ptolemaeus, 
the  sum  of  one  hundred  talents  (great  talent, 
$480;  little  talent,  $363).  I  pass  over  in  silence 
the  many  physicians  of  the  very  highest  celeb- 
rity, the  Cassii,  for  instance,  the  Capetani,  the 
Aruntii,  and  the  Rubrii,  men  who  received  fees 
yearly  from  the  great  amounting  to  no  less  than 
250,000  sesterces  ($11,250).^  As  for  Q.  Ster- 
tinius,  he  thought  that  he  conferred  an  obliga- 

^  The   sestertius  represented  about  4.5  cents,  or  one- 
fourth  of  the  denarius,  which  equaled  17  cents. 

83 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

tion  upon  the  Emperors  in  being  content  with 
500,000  sesterces  per  annum,  and  indeed  he 
proved  that  ...  a  city  practise  would  bring  him 
in  a  yearly  income  of  not  less  than  600,000  ses- 
terces." Crinas,  of  Massilia,  seems  to  have 
exceeded  all  ^bounds,  and  died  leaving  as  the 
result  d-f'his  depredations  10,000,000  sesterces, 
after  having  spent  fully  as  much  upon  building 
operations  in  which  he  was  interested,  "  Con- 
cerning these  Greeks,"  said  Cato  to  his  son 
Marcus,  "they  are  a  most  iniquitous  and  in- 
tractable race.  The;^  have  conspired  among 
themselves  to  murder  all  barbarians  with  their 
medicine;  a  profession  which  they  exercise 
for  lucre,  in  order  that  they  may  win  our  con- 
fidence, and  despatch  us  all  the  more  easily 
...  I  forbid  you  to  have  anything  to  do  with 
physicians." 

It  would  seem  that  the  culmination  of  censure 
was  centered  upon  Arcagathus,  son  of  Lysa- 
nias,  who  about  the  year  200  B.  C.  came  to 
Rome  from  the  Peloponnesus.  Free  citizen- 
ship was  given  him,  also  a  shop  for  his  prac- 
tise provided  in  the  Acilian  Cross-way  at  the 
public    expense.     He   received  the  name  of 

84 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

"  Vulnerarius.  .  .  .  On  his  arrival  he  was 
greatly  welcomed  at  first,  but  .  .  .  soon  after- 
ward, from  the  cruelty  displayed  by  him  in 
cutting  and  searing  his  patients,  he  acquired 
the  new  name  of  'Carnifex,'  and  brought  his 
art  .  .  .  into  considerable  disrepute." 

In  fact,  Arcagathus^  unsavory  reputation, 
side  by  side  with  the  conviction  that  the  Greek 
physicians  who  constituted  the  medical  pro- 
fession in  Rome  were  altogether  robbers  and 
thieves,  led  to  the  decision  on  the  part  of  the 
citizens  that  they  would  have  no  more  of 
doctors.  Thus  medical  practise  was  brought 
rudely  to  a  standstill,  and  the  teachers  and 
practitioners  of  medicine  were  expelled  from 
the  city.  "Medicine,"  said  Pliny,  "is  the  only 
one  of  the  arts  of  Greece  that,  lucrative  as  it  is, 
the  Roman  gra\ity  has  hitherto  refused  to  culti- 
vate. It  is  but  very  few  of  our  fellow -citizens 
that  have  even  attempted  it." 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  ASKLEPIA  ON  THE  LIFE 
AND    HEALTH    OF   THE    DAY 

Notwithstanding  the  sorry  plight  into  which 
unworthy  followers  of  the  art  of  healing  had 

85 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

plunged  medical  practise,  the  impress  made  by 
Egyptian  medicine  and  by  Hippocrates  and  his 
immediate  followers,  and  by  the  temples  of 
health,  was  for  ultimate  good.  Not  every  patient 
complained  of  the  fee  or  of  rough  treatment 
as  the  most  prominent  features  of  his  cure. 
Not  all,  indeed,  failed  of  cure.  Many  are  the 
testimonials  to  the  actual  and  lasting  cures 
resulting  from  a  sojourn  with  the  doctor- 
priests.  Many  lives  wxre  undoubtedly  sacri- 
ficed; many  others  were  as  certainly  prolonged 
and  saved. 

The  healthful  situation  of  many  of  the 
asklepia,  the  outdoor  life,  the  wholesome  rules 
of  hygiene,  the  systematic  regime,  the  separa- 
tion from  oversolicitous  and  meddling  friends, 
all  of  these  contributed  to  a  success  in  the 
cure  of  bodily  ills  that  was  as  creditable  as 
it  was  real.  The  German  lie ge-h alien  are 
simply  adaptations  and  developments  of  the 
abaton.  The  fresh-air  cure  is  nothing  other 
than  an  expansion  and  modification  of  the  out- 
door life  under  the  supervision  of  the  doctor- 
clergy.  The  purgation  followed  by  a  suitable 
dietary  completes  the  picture  which  detracts 

86 


The  Askleplan  Temples  of  Health 

somewhat  from  the  originality  of  the  modern 
sanatorium  expert.  Ever  and  anon  medicine 
and  medical  men  have  returned  for  a  brief  mo- 
ment to  the  hygienic  methods  of  the  Egyptian 
and  the  Greek.  The  Greek  copied  from  the 
Egyptian,  and  now  the  Anglo-Saxon  copies 
from  the  Greek. 

More  and  more  has  it  become  essential  to 
the  honor  of  the  profession  that  the  welfare  of 
the  patient  be  made  and  actually  be  the  first 
and  final  consideration.  Ever  deeper  and 
more  permanently  grounded  is  the  principle 
that  prevention  is  better  than  cure. 

This  aside,  we  again  face  the  fact  that  mod- 
ern medical  treatment  is  most  efficacious  when 
conducted  along  the  hygienic  lines  laid  down 
in  the  health  temples  of  old.  We  know  a  few 
more  facts  with  respect  to  the  causation  of 
disease,  and  in  a  few  instances  have  benefited 
to  the  extent  of  evolving  an  antitoxin  or  medica- 
mental  cure.  Mithridates  experimented  along 
these  lines  in  80  B.  C.  and  endeavored  to 
render  himself  immune  to  all  forms  of  poison 
by  the  constant  and  daily  use  of  minute  doses 
of  various  poisonous  principles.    To  begin  at 

87 


The  Asklepian  Temples  of  Health 

the  disease,  however,  is  to  begin  at  the  wrong 
end  of  affairs.  Our  aim  must  be  with  the 
Greeks  to  establish  through  our  temples  of 
health  radiantly  healthy  men  and  women,  who 
shall  think  and  live  clean,  heartful  lives,  and 
learn  to  beget  children  of  the  sun  who  will 
only  bend  for  a  moment  beneath  the  storm. 
In  place  of  the  columned  building,  the  body 
becomes  the  temple  of  the  human  asklepion. 
In  the  stead  of  the  abaton  and  sacred  grove 
we  have  the  home.  In  lieu  of  superstition 
and  a  fraudulent  deity,  we  may  recline  upon 
the  unlimited  sympathy  and  wisdom  of  the 
Master  Physician  who  imposes  no  fee. 

88 


IV 


LUKE  THE  PHYSICIAN 

There  is  little  room  for  doubt  that  Luke  was 
born  in  Antioch.  From  his  name  (Lucanus), 
as  well  as  from  the  very  fact  that  he  was  a  phy- 
sician, it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  he  was 
an  Asiatic  Greek.  Paul  refers  to  him  as  not 
of  the  circumcision.  In  the  light  of  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  social  status  of  medical  men  during 
the  century  preceding  and  the  early  portion  of 
that  following  the  birth  of  Christ,  we  may  as- 
sume that  had  he  lived  and  practised  his  profes- 
sion at  Rome,  Luke's  origin  would  in  all  likeli- 
hood have  been  lowly  and  his  station  in  life 
probably  mean.  Nearly  if  not  quite  all  the 
Greek  physicians  in  Rome  had,  prior  to 
Caesar's  day,  been  freedmen  or  slaves,  and 
though  a  certain  few  gained  popularity  and 
distinction  the  profession  was  not  held  in 
honor  and  its  success  was  not  such  as  to  at- 
tract many  loyal  or  enthusiastic  adherents. 

In  Antioch,  and  throughout  Asia  Minor  gen- 
erally, it  is  far  less  likely  to  have  been  true  that 

91 


Luke  the  Physician 

a  given  Greek  physician  was  a  slave.  Even 
in  Rome  the  doctors  were  all  now  free.  We 
have,  however,  other  than  Luke's  own  reliable 
records  to  inform  us  upon  this  point.  In 
Jerusalem,  the  Hellenistic  tendency  was  upper- 
most to  the  very  moment  of  the  Maccabaean 
uprising.  The  mere  association  of  Grecian 
parentage  with  medical  sympathies  would 
at  this  particular  time  and  in  the  locality 
of  Antioch  hardly  warrant  the  conclusion  that 
Luke's  professional  training  and  practise  were 
conducted  in  either  the  actuality  or  memory  of 
bondage.  Indeed,  there  is  evident  in  the 
tone  of  his  writings  a  conscious  dignity  and  in- 
dependence of  thought  that  would  seem  to  little 
befit  one  whose  past  and  outlook  were  those 
even  of  trusted  and  confidential  slavedom. 

We  know  very  little  of  his  personal  his- 
tory. Eusebius  (III,  Chap.  IV)  tells  us  the 
place  of  his  birth,  also  that  the  practise  of 
medicine  was  his  chosen  calling.  Irenaeus, 
Clement,  and  Tertullian  all  quoted  him  repeat- 
edly during  the  second  century  as  a  man  of 
authority,  and  regarded  his  Gospel  as  that  of  the 

Kingdom  of  Heaven.     There  is  a  tradition, 

92 


Luke  the  Physician 

though  it  is  nothing  more,  that  Luke  studied 
at  Tarsus  and  while  there  was  thrown  in  contact 
with  his  Hfelong  friend  Paul.  Were  this  true, 
Luke's  culture  and  acquaintance  with  the 
affairs  of  the  day  would  be  easy  of  expla- 
nation. Tarsus  was  "no  mean  city,"  rival- 
ing Athens  and  Alexandria  in  opulence  and 
splendor.  Its  people  had  conferred  upon 
them  the  liberties  and  privileges  of  Roman 
citizens.  Especially  during  Luke's  time,  and 
earlier  during  the  sway  of  Antony  and  Au- 
gustus, did  the  Cilician  capital  enjoy  royal 
favor,  and  as  a  consequence  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences during  this  period  had  ample  oppor- 
tunity to  develop  and  expand. 

HIS   CHARACTER 

In  his  letter  to  the  Colossians  (4  :  14)  Paul 
characterizes  Luke  as  "the  beloved  physician." 
Quite  on  the  eve  of  Paul's  martyrdom  he  tells 
us  (2  Tim.  4  :  11)  "Only  Luke  is  with  me," 
testifying  to  an  intimacy  and  devotion  that 
evidence  more  than  mere  acquaintanceship, 
rather  the  affectionately  close  tie  that  often- 
times binds  together  doctor  and  patient-friend. 

93 


Luke  the  Physician 

Both  Luke  and  Paul  make  frequent  reference  to 
journeys  taken  in  one  another's  company.  Li 
Acts  1 6,  up  to  a  certain  point  Luke  uses  the 
pronoun  "they."  In  the  tenth  verse  "we"  is 
substituted,  when  Luke,  who  had  probably  been 
left  at  Philippi,  joined  Paul  at  Assos,  and 
journeyed  with  him  to  Jerusalem. 

Luke  also  uses  "we"  in  his  account  of  the 
voyage  to  Rome  and  of  the  shipwreck  on  the 
way.  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 
loyalty  of  his  friendship  even  unto  the  end. 

As  to  the  real  character  of  the  man,  we  have 
worthy,  though  indirect,  testimony.  Paul's 
religion  was  of  the  thinking,  thoughtful  sort, 
and  it  seems  likely  that  the  man  whom  Paul 
loved  and  admired,  and  whom  he  trusted  to 
transmit  his  version  of  the  life  of  Christ  to  the 
world  and  to  posterity,  must  needs  have  been 
one  of  balance,  of  keen  judgment,  of  broad 
vision,  and  of  kindliness  of  heart.  How  beauti- 
fully and  tenderly  Luke  tells  the  story  of  the 
"woman  that  was  a  sinner."  This  is  his  own 
account.  No  other  of  the  Gospel  writers  seems 
to  have  thought  the  incident  worthy  of  more 
than  mention.     "For  she  loved  much,"  shows 

94 


Luke  the  Physician 

a  depth  in  Luke's  own  life  and  soul  even  greater 
than  the  sense  of  need  and  affection  expressed  in 
the  tears  of  Mary  of  Bethany.^  There  is  con- 
siderable significance  in  the  physician  Luke's 
framing  of  the  picture.  Then  as  now  there 
was  tolerated  a  double  standard  for  moral  and 
physical  health.  Not  the  same  observance  of 
honor  toward  God  and  the  home  was  required 
of  innocent  and  ignorant  woman  and  of  the 
criminally  intelligent  male.  Then  as  now 
many  a  woman  turned  thumbs  down  in  response 
to  the  cry  for  pity  and  help  from  the  erring 
girl,  while  welcoming  into  friendship  and 
wedlock  with  her  fair  children  the  seducer, 
tainted  as  he  was  and  is  with  moral  and  phys- 
ical infection.  Christ  touched  a  guilty  public 
conscience  when  He  "  said  unto  them,  He  that 
is  without  sin  among  you,  let  him  first  cast  a 
stone  at  her." 

Luke's  insistence  upon  and  striving  after  strict 
accuracy  in  his  testimony  regarding  the  life  of 
Jesus  Christ,  whom  he  never  saw,  is  perhaps 
another  evidence  of  his  scientific  training  in 
medical  practise,  as  well  as  of  his  realization 

1  Vid.  dose  of  chapter, 

95 


Luke  the  Physician 

of  the  inadequacy  of  preceding  attempts  to 
portray  the  Master  Physician,  and  of  the  im- 
portance that  would  attach  to  an  authentic 
relation  of  the  gospel  to  men.  "  Even  as  they 
delivered  them  unto  us,  which  from  the  begin- 
ning were  eye-witnesses.  ...  It  seemed  good 
to  me  also,  having  had  perfect  understanding 
of  all  things  from  the  very  first,  to  write  unto 
thee  in  order.  .  .  .  That  thou  mightest  know 
the  certainty  of  those  things,  wherein  thou 
hast  been  instructed." 

HIS  LANGUAGE 

The  opening  paragraphs  of  the  "Book  of 
Good  Tidings,"  as  Luke  gave  it  to  us  in  the 
original  Greek,  mark  him  as  a  scholar  and  aw^ell- 
read  student  of  the  old  writers.  The  phrase- 
ology is  concise  and  beautiful,  and  the  thought  is 
one  of  dignity  and  great  assurance,  of  reliabil- 
ity and  worth.  The  style  and  diction  are  those 
of  the  old  Greek  historians.  The  subject- 
matter  is  the  inspiring  gospel  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Christ.  Such  a  method  of  expression  and 
such  beauty  of  construction  and  literary  polish 
are  not  found  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament, 

96 


Luke  the  Physician 

except  at  the  close  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
and  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  two  books  (the  Gospel  and  the 
Acts)  is  deliberately  adapted  to  the  use  of  un- 
cultured and  simple  folk,  and  is  such  a  form  of 
Greek  as  could  easily  be  digested  by  the  homely 
Aramaic  families  among  which  so  much  of  the 
work  was  to  be  done.  It  was  read  and  enjoyed, 
however,  in  the  much  simpler  Aramaic  and 
Hebrew,  not  to  any  extent  in  Greek.  When 
translated  again  into  the  language  of  the  preface, 
the  simpler  forms  of  the  Aramaic  were  retained 
and  introduced  into  the  Greek,  so  that  all  the 
Gentiles  might  hear  and  understand  the  mes- 
sage. Thus  we  find  the  pearl  of  great  price  in 
unadorned  simplicity  and  beauty,  and  in  a  set- 
ting of  rare  dignity  and  refinement.  The 
scholar  has  shown  a  master  genius  in  adapting 
his  art  to  the  plain  folk,  to  children,  and  to  the 
sick  in  body  and  mind.  Not  every  great  writer 
or  even  great  orator  can  speak  simply,  as  to  a 
little  child.  Luke  shared  with  his  Master  the 
conviction  that  "of  such  is  the  Kingdom  of 
heaven."  He  must  have  thought  how  difficult 
it  would  be  for  the  people  to  understand  the 

97 


Luke  the  Physician 

then  new  story  of  Jesus  and  His  love.  His  full 
talent,  therefore,  must  be  employed  to  send  its 
meaning  home,  so  that  any  and  every  weary 
heart  and  mind  could  lay  hold  on  its  gospel  of 
eternal  life. 

Apart  from  the  evidence  of  scholarly  knowl- 
edge, there  is  also  testimony  on  every  page  that 
Luke  was  not  only  familiar  with  but  had  caught 
the  method  of  diction  peculiar  to  the  medical 
writings  extant  in  his  day. 

Hobart  has  made  an  elaborate  study  of  the 
medical  phraseology  employed  by  the  evangelist 
in  the  third  Gospel  and  the  Acts,  and  has  mar- 
shaled an  astounding  series  of  instances  in  which 
Luke  has  not  only  used  for  his  description  of 
Christ's  cures  of  diseased  folk  words  that  were 
almost  exclusively  medical  in  their  significance, 
but  such  as  were  not  in  common  use  except 
by  medical  men  as  early  as  Hippocrates  and  as 
late  as  Galen.  Still  further  has  he  shown  that 
in  many  instances  Luke  has  used  terms  in  a 
medical  sense  which  elsewhere  he  has  employed 
with  a  non-medical  meaning.  Many  of  these 
are  found  in  no  other  place  in  the  Bible. 
Thus  "the  prevailing  tinge  of  medical  diction 

98 


Luke  the  Physician 

in  the  third  Gospel  and  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  tends  also  to  establish  the  integrity  of 
these  writings,  as  we  have  them,  inasmuch  as 
the  phraseology  in  question  permeates  the 
entire  works,  and  shows  the  hand  of  a  medical 
author  continuously,  from  the  first  verse  of  the 
Gospel  to  the  last  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles." 
Mention  may  be  made  of  a  few  instances  il- 
lustrating "the  medical  tinge."  In  Chapter  4 
of  the  Gospel,  Luke  relates  Christ's  saying,  "Ye 
will  surely  say  unto  me  this  proverb.  Physi- 
cian,  heal    thyself"    (^larpi^  dcpd-Keo<jnv   ffeauTov). 

Luke  alone  of  the  Evangelists  recalls  this  saying, 
and  probably  only  Luke  knew  that  the  proverb 
was  by  no  means  a  new  one  among  medical 
men,  and  had  formed  the  motif  of  a  cynicism 
as  old  almost  as  medicine  itself. 

In   describing    the   healing    of    the   lunatic 
child  (Luke  9)  the  Evangelist  uses  the  words 

d^poq^   dTTo^wpetv,    iiztfiXiTceiv^    and    i^a{(pv7j?.      The 

word  d(i>p6<^  is  commonly  used  by  Greek  medical 
writers  to  describe  the  foaming  from  the  mouth 
in  epilepsy.  'A-oxwpiiv  is  used  to  express  the 
departure  of  the  seizure  from  the  patient.  It  is 
a  strictly  and  typically  medical  term.    "EnL^U-Keiv 

99 


Luke  the  Physician 

is  found  only  in  Luke,  of  the  four  Gospels.  The 
old  medical  writers  employed  the  word  to 
describe  the  doctor's  inspection  and  examination 
of  his  patient.  '£ca £>•/?? ?  is  used  by  Luke  four 
times,  and  only  once  is  it  found  elsewhere  in 
the  New  Testament.  It  is  the  medical  expres- 
sion for  any  suddenness  in  a  medical  phe- 
nomenon, as  a  convulsion,  a  paralysis,  or  the 
epileptic  cry.  No  other  writer  in  the  New 
Testament  refers  to  the  duration  of  these 
seizures,  in  which  Luke  tells  us  the  spirit 
"hardly"  departed  from  him. 

Only  Luke  records  the  replacement  and 
healing  of  Malchus'  ear.  Christ,  as  far  as  we 
are  privileged  to  know,  worked  no  other  surgi- 
cal cure  and  restored  no  other  amputated 
organ.  Luke  seems  to  have  been  impressed 
by  the  novelty  of  the  medical  experience. 

Luke  alone  tells  the  parable  of  the  Good 
Samaritan,  which  contains  much  of  interest  to 
the  medical  man.  He  alone  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment uses  the  medical  word  ^Aif^aviy'?,  "half 
dead."  No  other  than  he  uses  the  medical  ex- 
pression inavipx^ffr^oii^  in  Saying  "when  I  come 
again  I  will  repay  thee." 

lOO 


Luke  the  Physician 

In  the  story  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira  the  word 
k^i(po^£  (gave  up  the  ghost)  is  strictly  medical, 
and  very  rare.  Luke  uses  the  expression 
three  times.  And  finally,  in  describing  the 
restoration  of  Saul's  vision  by  Ananias,  Luke 
alone  uses  the  words  XeTrids^  (scales — a  medical 
term)  and  dTrontnTscvj  meaning  to  fall  off,  as  of 
scales  from  the  skin,  or  of  diseased  or  dead 
portions  of  the  body.  Paul  in  his  own  two 
accounts  of  this  miracle  omits  all  of  the  details 
that  interested  Luke,  and  in  one  instance  fails 
even  to  mention  his  own  loss  of  sight. 

Many  other  examples  might  be  cited,  but 
enough  testimony  has  been  adduced  to  satisfy 
any  other  than  a  hypercritical  jury.  In  a 
much  more  satisfactory  manner  than  by  the 
bald  statement  that  he  was  a  physician,  and  one 
of  culture,  Luke  has  left  a  stamp  upon  medical 
history  that  would  appear  lasting  to  the  point  of 
being  indelible. 

Just  a  word  of  comment  may  be  interesting 
in  the  matter  of  Luke's  power  of  case  relation 
in  the  series  of  miracle-cures  wrought  by  the 
Master  Physician. 

The  healing  of  the  man  with  a  withered 

lOI 


Luke  the  Physician 

hand  (Luke  6)  is  a  fine  description,  differing  in 
many  points  from  that  of  Mark.  Luke  is  much 
more  observing.  The  account  of  the  heahng 
of  the  centurion's  servant  (Chapter  7)  is  also 
much  more  expUcit  in  medical  details  than  the 
account  by  Matthew,  Mark  does  not  tell  the 
story  at  all.  The  healing  of  the  Gadarene  de- 
moniac (Chapter  8)  is  a  graphic  picture  de- 
scriptive of  a  condition  not  infrequent  in  the 
medical  practise  of  that  day. 

The  possession  by  devils  was  a  matter  of 
reality  to  Luke,  and  Christ  himself  failed  to 
relieve  us  of  the  necessity  of  believing  that 
Luke's  conviction  amounted  to  understand- 
ing in  this  matter.  We  will  not  enter  into 
the  discussion  at  this  time,  but  can  well 
afford  to  wait  until  we  graduate  into  a  knowl- 
edge of  a  more  Christlike  medicine  than  our 
own  before  refusing  to  believe  the  dogmatic 
and  literal  statements  of  these  New  Testa- 
ment case  histories.  Luke  discriminates  in  a 
manner  that  is  very  significant  between  cast- 
ing out  devils  and  curing  diseases.  Christ 
"gave  them  power,"  Luke  tells  us,  "over  all 
devils,   and    to   cure   diseases"    (Chapter   9). 

102 


Luke  the  Physlclail 

In  the  story  of  the  cure  of  the  leper  Luke 
indicates  his  clear  knowledge  of  Old  Testa- 
ment medicine  and  of  the  divine  laws  of 
hygiene  as  laid  down  by  Moses  at  God's 
command  (Chapter  5). 

The  raising  of  Jairus'  little  daughter  por- 
trays Luke,  like  his  Master,  as  a  lover  of 
children.  Only  one  who  had  absorbed,  as  had 
the  Christ,  the  full  confidence  of  a  child  with 
its  head  on  His  breast,  could  have  penned  this 
picture.  Luke  also  had  learned  to  know  the 
wholesomeness  of  child  life  and  child  trust  in 
his  work  as  a  medical  practitioner.  It  is  a 
point  not  to  be  overlooked  that  in  the  midst  of 
his  busy  day  and  alongside  of  historical  facts 
of  importance  this  critical  physician  recalls 
Christ's  invitation  to  Kttle  children  to  "come 
unto  Me." 

"And  a  woman  having  an  issue  of  blood 
twelve  years,  which  had  spent  all  her  living 
upon  physicians,  neither  could  be  healed  of 
any.  ..."  This  paragraph  convicts  the  his- 
torian of  a  keen  insight  as  to  the  limitations  of 
the  doctor,  and  suggests  at  the  same  time  a 
gleam  of  humor  with  respect  to  the  occasional 

103 


Luke  the  Physician 

necessary  outlay  without  commensurate  return. 
The  reference  to  the  expenditure  of  her  entire 
income  need  not  be  held  to  imply  that  the 
expense  was  one  of  medical  fees  and  charges 
only.  The  cost  of  travel  in  search  of  health, 
of  treatment  at  health  resorts,  of  votive  offer- 
ings, of  incantations  and  masses,  was  as  real  in 
the  time  of  Christ  as  to-day. 

In  telling  of  the  woman  "with  the  spirit  of 
infirmity"  (Chapter  13)  Luke  goes  into  great 
detail  in  the  description  of  signs  and  symptoms. 
She  was  afflicted  "eighteen  years,"  she  was 
"bowed  together,"  "could  in  no  wise  Hft  herself 
up."  "Immediately  she  was  made  straight." 
To  the  point  is  every  word  in  the  description. 
In  the  story  of  the  lepers  (Chapter  17)  which 
"stood  afar  off,"  there  is  a  silent  reference  to 
the  isolation  of  the  contagious  class. 

In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Chapter  3)  Luke 
describes  a  congenital  deformity,  in  the  man 
"lame  from  his  mother's  womb."  This  cure 
removes  all  ground  from  under  the  feet  of 
those  carping  critics  who  desire  to  look  upon 
Christ's  miracles  as  natural  phenomena  similar 
to  those  seen  to-day  in  medical  practise,  many 

104 


Luke  the  Physician 

of  which  are  simple  changes  in  mental  and 
nervous,  and  probably  chemical  states.  Here 
was  no  chemical  change,  and  no  mental  state. 
Born  a  cripple,  Luke  takes  pains  to  emphasize 
the  fact  that  he  was  lame  until  Christ,  through 
Peter,  healed  him,  and  then,  and  only  then,  he 
"leaping  up  stood,  walking  and  leaping." 
Here  was  no  hysterical  phenomenon,  but  a 
miracle-cure  of  the  first  order.  "For  the  man 
was  above  forty  years  old  on  whom  this  miracle 
of  healing  was  shewed." 

Luke  seems  to  relate  with  a  definite  purpose 
the  divine  commission  of  the  medical  profession 
(Acts  4) :  "  Grant  unto  thy  servants  that  with 
all  boldness  they  may  speak  thy  word,  by 
stretching  forth  thine  hand  to  heal."  He  also 
refers  with  serious  emphasis  to  the  response 
given  to  this  appeal  for  medical  inspiration 
from  above  (Acts  4  :  31). 

In  the  miracle-cures  of  the  Apostles,  Luke 
again  discriminates  between  "sick  folk,  and 
them  which  were  vexed  with  unclean  spirits." 
In  both  classes  of  ailment,  however,  he  points 
to  the  need  of  the  physician,  and  states  that 
"they  were  healed  every  one"  (Acts  5  :  16). 

105 


Luke  the  Physician 

In  his  last  chapter  (Acts  28  : 8,  9)  Luke  tells 
us  that  Paul  also  had  power  in  miracle-cure. 
Here  again  is  an  instance  of  a  definite  physical 
disorder,  a  hemorrhage  of  some  given  type, 
the  causal  condition  perhaps  not  having  been 
recognized,  nor  the  need  for  one  suspected  by 
the  Aposde.  The  cure  is  none  the  less  def- 
inite, however,  and  Luke's  confidence  in  the 
efficacy  of  the  method  is  none  the  less  secure. 

We  have  no  hint  throughout  the  writings  of 
Luke  as  to  his  own  methods  of  practise.  From 
the  references  made  to  him  by  the  early  writers 
we  gather  that  he  was  a  medical  practitioner 
prior  to  his  conversion  to  Christ.  Therefore 
his  practise  was  not  originally,  at  least,  one  of 
miracle-cure,  whatever  it  may  have  developed 
into  at  a  later  time.  Probably  he  used  many 
of  the  simple  and  sensible  hygienic  methods 
for  which  the  Greek  physicians  were  famous. 
Probably  he  minimized  the  value  of  drugs. 
We  can  hardly  doubt  that  when  working  beside 
the  Apostle  Paul  he  learned  to  value  the  power 
and  efficacy  of  an  appeal  to  the  Great  Physician. 
It  is  a  satisfaction  to  feel  confident,  however, 
that  Luke  was  a  practical,  everyday,  though  a 

106 


Luke  the  Physician 

rare  doctor,  and  one  of  the  old  school  in  so  far 
as  that  implies  good  breeding,  an  entire  and 
complete  submersion  of  self  in  the  good  of  the 
patient,  a  gentle  courtesy,  and  in  addition — 
only  in  addition — a  fine  scientific  equipment 
commensurate  with  the  development  of  the 
period  in  which  the  man  is  privileged  to  strive 
for  and  to  attain  the  welfare  of  his  fellow-men. 

In  retouching  and  completing  our  picture  of 
this  Gentile  convert  to  the  Christian  practise 
of  religion  and  medicine,  it  will  not  be  amiss  to 
direct  attention  to  the  fact  that  on  the  only 
three  occasions  on  which  Luke  the  Physician 
is  recorded  to  have  been  in  company  with  Paul, 
the  latter  had  just  suffered  a  severe  illness. 
There  is  no  doubt  left  in  our  minds  by  Paul 
himself  that  Luke  was  dear  to  him.  Is  it  not 
likely  also  that  he  was  his  physician  ?  Be  this 
as  it  may,  Paul  makes  no  secret  of  his  respect 
and  of  his  reliance  upon  "the  beloved  physi- 
cian," who  was  probably,  almost  certainly,  the 
only  Christian  doctor  of  his  day.  It  seems  only 
natural  that  Paul  would  turn  to  him  as  a  coun- 
selor as  well  as  friend. 

Under  Christ,  then,  Luke  was  and  is  the  Dean 
107 


Luke  the  Physician 

of  the  Christian  medical  profession.  How  he 
must  have  cherished  the  confidence  that  some- 
where and  somewhen  he  would  take  counsel 
face  to  face  with  the  profession's  Head! 

The  earth  has  recently  given  up  certain  of  her 
treasures  and  has  thereby  confirmed  Luke's 
oft-questioned  statement  that  an  enrolment  of 
the  people  was  in  progress  at  the  time  Mary 
and  Joseph  arrived  in  Bethlehem  in  dire  need 
of  lodging  and  comfort.  Only  the  physician- 
historian  has  given  us  the  story  of  the  shep- 
herds' bewilderment,  of  the  angels'  song  upon 
the  hills,  and  of  the  Baby  King's  birth  in  a 
manger.  Only  Luke  hints  at  the  forlorn  con- 
dition of  the  Virgin-Mother  on  that  wonderful 
night.  None  save  him  transmits  the  message, 
"Glory  to  God  in  the  highest,  and  on  earth 
peace,  goodwill  toward  men."  The  lowliness 
and  the  humility  of  the  scene,  as  well  as  the 
wonder  and  silent  majesty  of  the  tribute  paid 
the  God-child  by  the  shepherds  and  by  the  Wise 
Men  following  the  Bethlehem  star,  seem  to  have 
been  borne  in  upon  the  heart  of  the  Evangelist, 
perhaps  because  he  was  a  physician.  Luke 
notes  even  the  eight  days  of  waiting  before  the 

io8 


Luke  the  Physician 

sacred  rite  of  circumcision,  and  the  naming  of 
Jesus,  the  Lord's  Christ. 

It  had  been  honor  enough  for  one  human  hfe 
to  have  gifted  the  ages  with  this  homely,  heart- 
winning  song.  Luke  read  in  it  more  perfectly 
than  any  other  the  divine  Infant's  loving  per- 
sistence in  forcing  His  way  into  a  world  unwill- 
ing to  accept  His  salvation;  the  triumph  over 
death  by  the  Saviour  of  ignorant  and  ungracious 
men;  and  the  peace  and  eternal  joy  that  await 
every  sinsick  soul  that  throws  its  burdens  upon 
Him. 

"But  when  he  was  yet  a  great  way  off  his 
father  saw  him,  and  had  compassion,  and  ran, 
and  fell  on  his  neck,  and  kissed  him." 

The  beauty  of  this  parable  shines  out  as  a 

gem  in  Luke's  crown.     He  had  never  heard  it 

from  the  lips  of  the  Master.     It  had  probably 

been  repeated  to  him  by  Paul.     Christ  knew 

our  need  of  such  a  stimulus  and  such  a  welcome 

as  are  portrayed  here.     He  allowed  Luke  to 

paint  the  picture  under  His  direction.     Luke 

the  physician  aided  the  Christ  in  applying  its 

balm  to  the  despair  of  centuries.     No  one  else 

reminded   the   world   that   the   prodigal   will 

109 


Luke  the  Physician 

ahvays  be  welcomed  home;  that  the  Father 
will  see  him  while  yet  a  great  way  off,  and  hasten 
to  meet  him.  Luke  knew  as  knew  no  fisherman 
and  no  publican  the  healing  virtue  of  an  out- 
reaching,  inviting  forgiveness  of  sin,  Luke's 
mission,  it  would  seem,  was  the  healing  not  only 
of  bodies,  but  the  hearts  and  souls  of  lonely  men. 
For  his  witness  to  the  Father's  unfailing  remedy 
we  are  everlastingly  indebted  to  him. 

Note. — In  full  recognition  of  the  varying  opinion  (in- 
cluding that  of  my  esteemed  publishers)  \\dth  respect  to  the 
identity  of  "the  woman  .  .  .  which  was  a  sinner"  (Luke 
7)  with  a  "woman"  (Mark  14  and  Matthew  26)  and 
with  Mary  of  Bethany  (John  11  and  12),  the  author  sub- 
mits the  accounts  in  parallel  as  his  ground  for  a  fixed  con- 
viction that  they  are  one  and  the  same.  The  Fathers  of 
the  early  church  held  this  view.  Christ's  evident  affection 
for  the  Bethany  home  becomes  no  less  beautiful  in  the 
light  of  the  seemingly  necessary  assumption  that  Mary 
"loved  much"  because  she  had  been  "forgiven  much." 

The  argument  hinges  almost  altogether  on  the  time  and 
place.  There  may  have  been  only  one  anointing,  or  the 
two  anointings  may  have  been  by  one  and  the  same  Mary. 
The  question  is  of  real  interest.  If  both  anointings 
occurred  at  Bethany,  or  even  if  they  may  have  occurred 
there,  and  if  the  time  of  both  incidents  may  have  coincided, 
then  objection  to  the  identity  of  the  two  women  must  cease, 
because  the  similarity  of  the  parallel  columns  becomes  too 
striking  to  be  ignored.     In  the  opinion  of  the  author  a 

1 10 


Luke  the  Physician 

full  study  of  the  account  by  Luke  renders  the  conclusion 
necessary  that  the  time  of  the  incidents  narrated  in  the  five 
accounts  may  without  difiSculty  have  been  the  same. 
Four  undoubtedly  refer  to  one  occurrence  at  Bethany, 
though  in  two  of  these  Mary's  name  is  omitted,  and  the 
word  "woman"  is  used  in  striking  similarity  to  the  term 
used  in  Luke  7.  All  of  the  four  accounts  refer  to  the  days 
just  in  advance  of  the  Passover.  Chapter  7,  comprising 
the  account  by  Luke,  covers  certainly  a  considerable,  and 
just  as  certainly  an  indeterminate  period  that  may  easily 
have  covered  the  time  of  the  Passover. 

Objection  has  been  made  that  if  the  "woman"  and 
Mary  were  the  same,  then  Christ  was  on  terms  of  intimacy 
with  Martha  and  Mary,  and  had  shown  his  affection  for 
Mary  before  the  time  of  her  forgiveness,  namely,  at  the 
raising  of  Lazarus.  Consultation  with  the  account  in 
John  II,  however,  proves  that  Mary  anointed  and  wiped 
Christ's  feet  before  Lazarus'  death  (verse  2).  If  then  the 
"woman"  and  Mary  were  identical,  the  anointing  took 
place  at  the  latest  during,  and  perhaps  prior  to  the  illness  of 
Lazarus,  and  "forgiveness"  was  hers  before  Lazarus  died, 
and  before  his  raising  from  the  dead.  It  would  seem  as 
though  the  point  of  time  must  be  passed  over,  though  it 
certainly  cannot  be  held  as  an  objection  to  the  identity  of 
incident  and  character. 

As  to  place,  it  may  be  said  that  in  Luke's  story  it  was  far 
more  likely  that  Christ  was  in  Judea  than  in  Capernaum  of 
Galilee  if  we  read  naturally  and  in  the  order  of  the  text. 
Capernaum  is  mentioned  in  verse  i  (Chapter  7),  then  Nain 
to  the  south  (verses  11-16),  then  inverse  17  "this  rumour 
of  him  went  forth  throughout  all  Judea,  and  throughout  all 
the  region  round  about."    Why  this  mention  of  Judea 

III 


Luke  the  Physician 

farther  still  to  the  south  (with  Samaria  between),  unless 
Christ  had  passed  on  toward  Jerusalem?  And  why  not 
precede  "  Judea"  by  "all  the  region  round  about"  in  verse 
17,  if  Judea  was  not  the  district  of  immediate  presence? 
Once  grant  that  Christ  was  in  Judea,  and  Jerusalem 
becomes  "the  city,"  and  Bethany  is  hard  by.  The  de- 
scription of  the  "woman  [which  was]  in  the  city"  follows 
without  mention  of  any  occurrence  that  would  point  to  a 
change  of  scene.  The  place,  therefore,  would  seem  to 
stand  as  an  argument  for  the  identity  of  the  two  women, 
rather  than  as  an  indication  that  there  were  two  places  and 
two  women.  The  closest  student  of  Bible  records  fails 
to  determine  the  exact  order  and  time  of  many  of  the  inci- 
dents in  Christ's  life. 

Mark  and  Matthew  place  the  feast  at  Bethany  and  at 
the  house  of  Simon  the  leper.  Luke  also  mentions  Simon, 
and  calls  him  "the  Pharisee."  There  is  no  reason  to  think 
that  they  were  not  the  same  Simon,  provided  the  other  de- 
tails of  the  accounts  agree.  With  Mark  and  Matthew,  John 
mentions  Bethany,  but  fails  to  give  the  name  of  the  host. 

The  acts  of  devotion  by  Mary  of  Bethany  and  by  the 
"woman"  both  met  with  protest,  which  while  not  identical 
in  form,  differed  in  no  way  that  would  affect  the  question 
of  identity  of  the  incidents.  It  is  hardly  likely  that  only 
one  comment  was  made.  Indeed,  John,  who  specifies 
Mary  of  Bethany,  Lazarus'  sister,  agrees  with  Luke  that 
she  anointed  the  feet  of  Christ,  and  wiped  them  with  the 
hairs  of  her  head.  Mark  and  Matthew  specify  Bethany 
as  the  place,  but  mention  the  anointing  only  of  Christ's 
head.  Identical  incidents,  to  be  sure,  but  different  ob- 
servers, and  different  impressions  of  the  importance  of 
various  features  of  the  occurrence! 

112 


Luke  the  Physician 

Luke,  Matthew,  and  Mark  agree  that  an  alabaster  box 
(cruse)  of  ointment  was  used. 

"And  why,"  some  one  says,  "  try  to  prove  that  Mary  of 
Bethany  was  a  'sinner'  ?"  First  of  all,  because  if  we  have 
been  misreading  the  Bible  since  the  time  of  the  Fathers, 
we  had  better  at  once  retrace  our  steps.  It  is  sufficient 
to  know  that  one  reading  or  the  other  is  as  nearly  as  possible 
correct. 

Far  more  important,  however,  is  the  lesson  of  forgive- 
ness shown  by  the  Master  Physician,  and  the  healing 
granted  of  moral  disease  and  sin.  Christ  seems  to  draw 
no  such  distinction  between  pardonable  and  unpardonable 
sin  as  that  carved  deep  by  hypocritical  humanity.  He 
made  it  clear  in  another  incident  (John  8)  that  He  held 
different  standards  of  judgment  and  forgiveness  from  those 
of  Pharisaical  men.  Moreover,  it  is  likely  that  His  for- 
giveness was  complete,  and  unaccompanied  by  a  shrug  of 
the  shoulder  or  by  a  withholding  even  of  affection.  Only 
our  own  "  Friendly  Societies  "  exclude  fallen  women,  every 
one  of  whom  is  a  victim  of  the  wickedness  of  a  man,  or  of 
social  conditions  equally  vicious  and  depraved.  Whether  a 
degenerate  morally  and  physically,  or,  as  is  oftentimes  true, 
simply  a  weak,  vain  creature,  oppressed  out  of  virtue  by  pov- 
erty and  an  unhappy  home,  she  is  in  sore  need  of  affection 
such  as  the  Christ  gave,  or  for  her  hope  will  never  see  dawn. 

It  offers  no  difficulties  to  one  who  has  studied  the  deeper 
and  better  side  of  many  of  these  unhappy  women,  no  sane 
one  of  whom  would  remain  in  her  life  of  shame  for  even 
her  brief  average  life  of  five  years  if  her  sister-women 
would  allow  her  to  emerge;  it  offers  no  obstacles,  we  repeat, 
to  the  belief  that  in  asserting  the  identity  of  "the  woman  .  . . 
which  was  a  sinner"  with  Mary  of  Bethany  we  must  also 

"3 


Luke  the  Physician 

admit  that  Christ  loved  her  sister  and  her.  Rather  does  the 
clinging  devotion  of  Mary  indicate  her  sense  of  eternal  obli- 
gation to  Him  for  lifting  her  out  of  a  sorrow  which  in  her 
day  was  all  too  common  in  the  home  of  Gentile  and  Jew. 


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V 

THE  MASTER  PHYSICIAN 

In  an  age  of  scientific  quiet,  almost  of  sleep, 
appeared  suddenly  the  greatest  Physician  of 
history.  No  medical  school  gave  Him  pro- 
fessional birth;  to  Him  none  dares  lay  claim 
of  parentage  or  nurture.  No  human  influence 
nor  training  has  before  or  since  developed 
the  naturalness,  the  directness,  nor  the  sim- 
plicity of  His  method.  In  none  is  embodied 
the  principle  of  His  healing  power.  From 
Jehovah,  the  Healer,  Counsellor,  and  Father 
of  the  fugitive  band  from  Egypt  came  the  all- 
wisdom  and  power  that  effected  each  cure. 

It  were  an  idle  task,  on  the  basis  of  human 
prescience  and  skill,  to  attempt  an  explanation 
or  an  exposition  of  His  work  as  a  physician. 
Christ's  knowledge  and  His  cures  were  divine, 
or  the  reports  constitute  a  clever  conspiracy 
of  charlatanry  and  guile.  There  was  very 
much  of  God  the  Father  in  all  His  dealings 
with  the  sick.    Yet  His  touch  was  unmistak- 

117 


The  Master  Physician 

ably  that  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Bethlehem,  of 
Nazareth,  and  Galilee.  It  mattered  not  to 
the  widow  of  Nain  that  it  was  the  King  of 
the  Jews  and  of  the  Past  and  Future  who  gave 
her  back  her  son.  It  was  of  greatest  concern 
that  the  gift  was  concrete,  and  that  it  came 
from  One  she  could  see,  and  thank,  and  know. 
Even  to  the  people  who  needed  salvation  He 
was  for  the  moment  less  God  than  man.  In 
order  to  reach  them  and  us  His  medical  life 
took  on  a  very  human  form. 

Like  the  Greek  doctors  in  Rome,  He  was  of 
lowly  birth,  and  as  with  all  professional  de- 
scendants of  the  royal  medical  line  of  Egypt, 
it  was  new  for  Him  to  appear  in  other  than  a 
priestly  and  kingly  state.  For  a  definite  pur- 
pose "there  was  no  room  for  him"  even  in  the 
inn.  Yet  His  has  been  the  only  birth  over 
which  the  angels  have  sung  for  joy.  In  fel- 
lowship with  the  oxen  and  kine,  and  in  a  lone- 
liness almost  as  deep  as  that  in  which  the  first 
Adam  must  have  guarded  over  Eve  in  the  birth 
of  their  boy,  so  the  Virgin  Mother  brought 
forth  the  Christ,  and  hallowed  the  world's  new 
day  as  she  laid  Him  in  the  manger.     In  this 

ii8 


The  Master  Physician 

connection  it  will  afford  rare  comfort  to  some 
that  Luke  the  physician  asserts  his  unqualified 
belief  in  the  certainty  ^  of  Christ's  miraculous 
birth.2 

Why  not,  when  he  knew  for  a  certainty  the 
wonder  of  His  resurrection  ? 

Notwithstanding  the  horrid  nightmare  of 
Herod's  reign,  there  was  peace  enough  in  the 
earth  to  warrant  the  shepherds  in  watching 
over  their  flocks  in  confidence,  and  their  follow- 
ing the  angels'  song  to  Bethlehem  in  full  cer- 
tainty that  a  King  reigned  there  whom  no 
Herod  could  destroy.  Later  came  the  three 
Kings  from  the  East  led  by  the  Evening  Star, 
which  astrologic  history  tells  us  could  only 
have  risen  in  that  position  during  the  year  8 
B.  C.  Recently  discovered  Egyptian  records 
leave  little  doubt  in  our  minds  that  the  census 
which  Augustus  had  decreed  for  each  four- 
teenth year  obtained  in  Jewry  as  in  Rome  and 
Egypt,  and  therefore  was  held  in  this  eighth 
year  before  the  so-called  Anno  Domini.  There 
are  definite  references  in  the  ancient  writers 
to  census  taken  in  Rome  in  8  B.  C,  in  Palestine 

^  Chapter  1:4.  2  Chapter  i  :  34-37. 

119 


The  Master  Physician 

in  A.  D.  7,  in  Asia  Minor  in  A.  D.  35,  and  in 
Rome  again  in  A.  D.  48.  With  one  omission 
there  is  included  here  a  series  of  cycles,  each 
of  approximately  fourteen  years. 

Even  Luke's  assertion  that  "all  went  to  be 
taxed,  every  one  into  his  own  city,"  has  been 
verified  by  the  Egyptian  document  unearthed 
in  1907,  which  testifies  to  the  order  issued  by 
the  Roman  governor  in  A.  D.  104,  requiring 
that  every  one  should  proceed  to  his  own  home 
for  the  census.  Thus  is  fixed  for  us  with  a 
new  comparative  exactness  the  period  in  which 
Jesus  began  His  life  on  earth,  and  the  medical 
age  in  which  He  exerted  His  wondrous  power. 
Herod  died  in  the  spring  of  B.  C.  4.  The 
Christ  must  therefore  have  remained  in  Egypt 
with  His  parents  nigh  unto  four  years  before 
they  set  their  faces  homeward,  and  turned 
aside  into  Nazareth  of  Galilee. 

Luke  tells  us  that  "the  child  grew,  and 
waxed  strong  in  spirit,  filled  with  wisdom:  and 
the  grace  of  God  was  upon  him." 

That  He  was  a  full-blooded,  vigorous,  out- 
door boy,  we  can  be  sure.  That  he  entered 
into  the  games  of  boydom  it  is  idle  to  question. 

120 


The  Master  Physician 

The  wide,  green  level  below  and  facing  Nazareth 
must  have  seemed  peculiarly  adapted  for  the 
Boy's    playground.     The    hills,    the    narrow 
mountain  path  winding  up  to  the  village  from 
the  plain  below,   the  lilies  of  the  field,   the 
orange  and  fig  trees,  the  birds  and  the  butter- 
flies in  which  the  country  is  so  rich — ^all  these 
must  have  filled  with  exquisite  joy  His  outdoor 
day.     The    shepherds    and    their    flocks,    the 
caravans   of   travelers   passing   Nazareth    on 
the  roadway,  the   carpenter  shop,   left  their 
impress  upon   the  growing   mind  and  heart 
of  the  Boy,  and  fitted  Him  for  contact  with 
men   from  all   tribes  and  factions.    Twenty 
miles  through  the  clear  air  to  the  southwest 
was  Mount  Carmel,  on  the  top  of  which  Elijah 
had  long  before  called  upon  his  God  to  undo 
the  priests  of  Baal.     Probably  Jesus  heard  the 
story  at  His  mother's  knee. 

No  doubt  He  wore  a  white,  short  cloak,  and 
a  bright-colored  kerchief  over  head  and  shoul- 
ders. The  girls  and  women  wore  white  veils, 
silk  dresses  with  scarfs,  and  blue,  and  red,  and 
yellow,  and  green  trousers.  In  school  the 
teacher  sat  on  a  seat  above  the  boys,  who  stood 

121 


The  Master  Physician 

or  sat  on  the  floor  in  a  semicircle,  the  Httle 
ones  in  the  front  rows.  Probably  much  of  His 
early  teaching  was  done  by  Mary,  His  mother. 
From  her,  in  all  likelihood,  Luke  heard  the 
story  of  Christ's  birth  and  boyhood  as  he  pic- 
tures them  to  us.  There  is  an  old  tradition 
that  she  died  at  Ephesus,  the  Vanity  Fair  of 
Asia  Minor.  Here  Luke  may  have  seen  her 
when  he  passed  through  with  Paul,  and  from 
the  mother's  own  lips,  in  the  shadow  of  the 
great  Temple  of  Diana,  have  learned  of  his 
Master,  w^hom  he  must  have  longed  to  see. 

Christ  was  born  into  an  age  of  emperor 
worship,  and  in  an  era  stone  dry  of  the  love 
of  man  for  humankind.  Julius  Caesar  had 
been  deified,  and  Augustus  bad  set  up  his  own 
image  for  adoration  in  every  temple  except 
that  in  Jerusalem.  Meanwhile,  in  the  cities 
of  the  Roman  Empire  he  had  overlooked  the 
entire  lack  of  hospitals,  orphan  and  foundling 
asylums,  poorhouses,  and  institutions  of  a  like 
charitable  kind.  In  the  main  the  period  27 
B.  C.  to  A.  D.  14  was  a  reign  of  peace.  For 
several  centuries  the  outside  world  had  been 
accumulating   medical   wisdom,   while   Rome 

122 


The  Master  Physician 

had  reveled  in  war.  Two  of  Alexander's 
generals,  Ptolemy,  the  governor  of  Egypt,  and 
Eumenes,  governor  of  Pergamos,  had  founded 
splendid  libraries  in  the  interest  of  science. 
The  former  collected  in  Alexandria  over  600,000 
volumes.  The  latter,  in  rivalry,  accumulated  at 
Pergamos  over  200,000  manuscripts,  which  the 
turning  of  the  wheel  of  fate  in  the  person  of 
Antony  sent  one  day  to  replace  the  Alexandrian 
collection  which  had  been  destroyed  by  Julius 
Caesar.  At  first  the  rivalry  was  so  keen  that 
the  export  of  papyrus  from  Alexandria  was 
forbidden  in  order  to  prevent  the  copying  of 
the  manuscripts  for  the  library  at  Pergamos. 
The  result  was  the  invention  of  Pergamos  paper 
or  parchment,  a  stimulus  to  greater  growth 
on  the  part  of  the  smaller  institution  of  learning. 
The  School  of  Alexandria  was  the  leading 
scientific  center  of  the  world.  Ptolemy  Soter 
and,  after  him,  his  son  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
gathered  round  them  the  world's  learned  men, 
attracting  them  with  fine  homes  and  ample 
salaries.  Two  of  these,  Herophilus  (300  B.  C.) 
and  Erosistratus  (died  280  B.  C),  were  famous 
anatomists,    who    benefited    from    the    great 

123 


The  Master  Physician 

opportunities  offered  for  dissection  and  vivi- 
section. They  described  the  brain  and  its 
membranes,  also  the  blood-supply  of  the  latter, 
the  anatomy  of  the  eye,  of  the  intestines,  and 
of  the  main  blood-vessels.  Erosistratus  also 
described  the  valves  of  the  heart.^  He  wrote 
on  fevers,   on  hygiene,  and   on  therapeutics. 

Galen  and  so  many  other  prominent  medical 
men  studied  in  Alexandria  that  in  the  period 
just  before  and  during  Christ's  medical  life  it 
was  deemed  a  certificate  of  thorough  equip- 
ment to  have  spent  a  season  in  medical  prep- 
aration abroad. 

About  200  B.  C.  the  procedures  of  Arcaga- 
thus  and  others  had  brought  Greek  medical 
practise  into  thorough  disrepute.  Not  until 
the  year  96  B.  C.,  during  the  Consulate  of 
Caius  Marius,  did  the  Roman  Empire  react 
from    his    malign    influence.     Asklepiades   of 

^  Those  ill-advised  persons  who  are  now  exclaiming 
with  fever  heat  against  the  scientific  and  usually  painless 
study  of  the  lower  animals  for  the  benefit  of  the  human 
race  refuse  to  listen  to  indubitable  testimony  that  our 
ground  knowledge  of  anatomy  was  obtained  by  a  similar 
though  always  painful  study  of  animals  and  of  live  human 
(criminal)  beings. 

124 


The  Master  Physician 

Bithynia  then  came  to  Rome  as  a  youth  of 
twenty-two  summers,  and  in  a  short  time 
had  won  a  place  for  himself  as  a  skilful  and 
safe,  if  not  as  a  strictly  regular,  practitioner 
of  the  art  of  healing.  He  was  a  keen  ob- 
server, and  yet  withal  more  or  less  of  a 
quack.  His  first  success  is  reported  to  have 
been  his  rescue  of  a  comatose  corpse  from 
interment  while  still  alive.  He  had  noted 
signs  of  life  while  the  funeral  ceremonies 
were  under  way,  and,  despite  the  protests 
of  friends  and  relatives  whose  fingers  were 
already  outstretched  toward  the  estate,  Askle- 
piades  insisted  that  the  dead  man  be  car- 
ried to  his  home,  and  soon  had  the  satisfaction 
of  seeing  him  thoroughly  alive.  Asklepiades 
was  a  combination  of  scientist  and  charlatan. 
He  not  only  advertised  hunself  as  being  able 
to  cure  "  cito^  certe,  et  jucunde^^  (surely, 
happily,  and  with  despatch),  but  actually  had, 
through  a  sensible  use  of  hygienic  measures 
and  mild  medicinal  preparations,  an  unusual 
measure  of  success.  About  55  B.  C.  he  was 
at  the  height  of  his  fame.  His  death  came 
in  29  B.  C,  at  the  ripe  and  honorable  age  of 

125 


The  Master  Physician 

90.  Mithridates  the  Great,  himself  an  ad- 
vanced student  of  experimental  medicine,  had 
in  75  B.  C.  invited  him  to  his  court  in  Pontes, 
but  Asklepiades  had  preferred  to  remain  the 
center  of  a  newly  growing  and  influential  school 
of  Grasco-Roman  medical  men.  During  his 
medical  lifetime  Caius  Marius  the  Consul,  Sulla 
the  Dictator,  and  Julius  Caesar  had  come  and 
gone.  Two  years  after  the  death  of  Asklepi- 
ades, Csesar  Octavianus  assumed  the  title  of 
Augustus,  and  inaugurated  a  period  of  Roman 
intellectual  brilliancy  that  was  only  outshone 
by  the  quiet,  divine  light  that  streamed  in 
advance  of  the  Great  Physician  just  growing 
out  of  boyhood  in  the  Roman  province  of 
Galilee.  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  Christ's 
nativity  formed  a  portion  of  a  military  mon- 
archy in  everything  but  the  name.  Augustus 
Caesar  did  not  seek  after  great  conquests, 
though  Spain  was  finally  subdued  during  his 
reign,  and  the  war  with  the  Germans  was 
brought  to  its  disastrous  termination  in  the 
annihilation  of  the  dreamer  Varus  by  Ar- 
minius. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  Augustus' 
126 


The  Master  Physician 

reign  was  its  long  series  of  intellectual  giants. 
Following  the  deaths  of  Cicero  and  Caesar  came 
in  rapid  succession  the  poets  Lucretius  and 
Lucullus,  Virgil,  Horace,  0\dd,  Maecenas, 
Li\y  and  Tacitus  the  historians,  and  Juvenal 
the  satirist.  Contemporary  with  these  men 
came  into  the  forefront  of  medicine  Themison, 
the  pupil  of  Asklepiades  and  the  founder  of  the 
medical  order  or  sect  of  Methodists  (30  B.  C). 
Themison,  like  his  preceptor,  discarded  many 
of  the  Hippocratic  doctrines,  and  insisted  that 
a  general  knowledge  of  the  principles  which  all 
diseases  have  in  common  was  all  that  was 
necessary  to  qualify  the  practitioner  for  the  care 
of  a  patient.  He  retained  Asklepiades'  ar- 
rangement of  diseases  into  their  chronic  and 
acute  forms;  but  went  farther  in  classifying 
them  according  to  his  idea  of  their  causation: 
(a)  those  due  to  constriction,  (b)  those  due  to 
relaxation,  and  (c)  those  arising  from  a  com- 
bination of  these  conditions.  Each  of  liis 
three  main  di\dsions,  he  claimed,  should  be 
treated  by  a  given  method  suited  to  all  of  the 
ailments  included  in  that  group.  The  aim  of 
the  Methodist  sect  seemed  to  be  to  simplify  the 

127 


The  Master  Physician 

study  and  the  theory  of  medicine.  In  dis- 
carding the  real  search  after  the  causal  factor, 
so  all-important  to  the  Dogmatic  School,  and 
in  slighting  the  investigation  and  correlation 
of  symptoms,  the  strong  point  of  the  Empirics, 
the  Methodists  assumed  the  existence  of  certain 
systemic  states  which,  they  taught,  constituted 
the  science  of  medicine.  Their  real  influence 
upon  its  history  and  progress  has  been  in  the 
direction  of  forcing  contemporary  and  rival 
schools  of  medicine  to  a  more  detailed  study  of 
the  manifestations  and  symptoms  of  disease. 
In  his  later  years  Themison  was  a  friend  and 
fellow  medical  worker  of  Celsus. 

Christ  was  born  in  the  middle  of  Methodism. 
In  or  about  A.  D.  25-27,  when  He  emerged 
from  His  period  of  training  into  the  activity  of 
His  short  public  ministry,  Themison  must 
have  been  at  the  height  of  his  fame  (died  A.  D. 
40),  while  Celsus  was  just  trying  his  wings  as 
the  first  native-bom  Roman  physician.  Both 
were  well  acquainted  with  the  practical  im- 
portance of  hygienic  measures.  The  diet, 
systematic  occasional  purgation,  the  influence 
of  climate,  of  judicious  exercise,  massage,  and 

128 


The  Master  Physician 

rest,  were  all  procedures  of  recognized  value 
in  the  treatment  of  the  given  case.  Asklepiades 
had  taught  them  the  medicinal  advantages  of 
the  shower-bath  and  of  hydrotherapy  in 
general.  From  the  standpoint  of  treatment  the 
average  doctor  of  the  day,  whether  of  the 
Methodist  or  any  other  School,  was  as  well 
equipped  to  return  the  patient  to  health  as  are 
most  practitioners  of  the  twentieth  century. 
He  lacked  the  facilities  for  the  wonderful 
system  of  laboratory  diagnosis  that  is  now 
at  command.  But  he  had  the  means  and 
intelligence  that  are  born  of  narrow  ad- 
vantages, so  that  he  treated  successfully  the 
conditions  he  knew.  He  even  possessed  many 
of  our  more  valuable  drugs.  Yet  the  student 
of  contemporaneous  literature  will  read  that 
Asklepiades  and  Themison  were  looked  upon 
by  many  as  not  to  be  trusted,  because  savoring 
of  the  quack  physician  rather  than  the  sound 
practitioner  of  medicine.  Juvenal,  for  instance, 
writes, 

"  Quot  Themison  aegros  autumno  ocdderat  uno  "  (Sat, 
xo,  V.  221): 

"How  many  sick  in  one  short  autumn  fell 
Let  Themison,  their  ruthless  slayer  tell." 
129 


The  Master  Physician 

Pliny,  at  every  opportunity,  speaks  just  as 
slightingly  of  Themison's  master,  Asklepiades. 
Evidently  both  realized  to  the  full  the  com- 
mercial value  of  clever  advertising.  Both 
were  of  an  unusual  intellectual  type,  and,  like 
all  men  of  fixed  principles  and  aggressive  per- 
sonality, had  enemies  who  lost  no  opportunity 
of  sending  a  shaft  home. 

Although  practising  in  Rome,  their  influence 
was  undoubtedly  strong  in  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem. The  Methodists  spread  every^-here. 
Jesus  Christ  not  only  came  into  touch  with 
their  representatives,  but  He  had  inherited  a 
rich  fund  of  Jewish  medical  erudition.  Against 
their  methods  Christ's  own  modes  of  healing 
form  a  contrast  that  becomes  all  the  more 
striking  when  we  recall  the  fact  that  He  tol- 
erated no  mistaken  diagnoses  and  never  failed 
to  cure. 

We  have  in  our  knowledge  of  the  Essenes 
in  Jerusalem  a  still  further  evidence  of  Christ's 
contact  with  the  medical  life  of  His  day. 
Josephus  tells  us  (Wars  H,  8:6):  ''They  take 
great  pains  in  studying  the  writings  of  the 
ancients,  and  choose  out  of  them  what  is  most 

130 


The  Master  Physician 

for  the  advantage  of  the  soul  and  body;  and 
they  inquire  after  such  roots  and  medicinal 
stones  as  may  cure  their  distempers."  The 
Essenes  were  very  similar  in  doctrine  to  the 
Therapeutae  of  Alexandria  and  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Dead  Sea  (vid.  Philo  in  De  Vita 
Contemplativa  ;  also,  Heckethom's  Secret  So- 
cieties;  and  Farrar's  Life  oj  Lives)  ^  a  sect  to 
which  tradition  assigns  the  parents  of  Jesus. 
The  story  has  it  that  the  boy  Jesus  was  born 
among  and  trained  by  these  people,  who  pro- 
fessed alone  to  be  able  to  interpret  the  writings 
of  Moses.  It  has  probably  no  foundation  in 
fact.  However  this  may  be,  we  have  no 
definite  record  of  the  adherence  of  Joseph  and 
Mary  to  such  an  order  of  Jewish  freemasonry, 
nor  of  the  contrary.  We  simply  gather  from 
their  presence  near  Jerusalem  the  certainty  that 
Christ  knew  their  customs  and  habits,  and,  no 
doubt,  had  heard  many  if  not  all  of  the  med- 
ical doctrines  of  both  the  Essenes  and  Thera- 
peutse. 

Every  large  Grecian  town  had  its  asklepion 
and  its  temple  of  health.  Under  the  Hellenistic 
influence  Jerusalem  may  have  shared  in  this  cus- 

131 


The  Master  Physician 

torn  of  caring  for  the  hygiene  and  health  of  its 
people,  though  the  open  worship  of  the  heathen 
god  would  have  been  impossible  there.  Christ 
must  during  His  wanderings  have  been  thrown 
in  touch  with  the  asklepia  of  the  heathen  cities 
in  Gahlee  (Tiberias,  Bethsaida  Julias,  Hip- 
pos, Sepphoris) .  He  must  also  have  conversed 
with  many  who  had  sojourned  as  patients  in 
the  Hieron  at  Epidaurus,  or  in  the  asklepion  at 
Athens,  or  in  some  other  Greek  city. 

What  use  did  He  make  of  His  knowledge  of 
human  science  and  methods  in  the  furthering  of 
His  cures  ?  Probably  none,  is  the  answer,  save 
in  so  far  as  it  enabled  Him  to  fathom  the 
hearts  and  weigh  the  frailties  of  men.  The 
Jews  were  ever  skilful  in  the  adaptation  of  med- 
ical methods  and  means.  No  keener  description 
exists,  nor  a  more  vivid  picture  of  the  uremic 
subject,  paying  the  price  of  his  bestial  excesses 
in  food,  wine,  and  immorality  than  is  painted 
by  the  layman,  Josephus,  in  his  tale  of  Herod's 
death  (Antiquities  XVII,  6:5).  What  Jose- 
phus knew  Christ  foreknew  more  clearly  and 
definitely  than  he.  But  the  medical  practise 
of  the  Master  Physician  was  of  a  different 

132 


The  Master  Physician 

type,  and  His  institutes  of  medicine  were 
learned  in  heaven.  Little  wonder  that  the 
crowd  stood  in  amaze.  Still  less  remarkable 
that  they  eagerly  followed  the  old  custom  of 
placing  their  sick  in  the  streets  that  such  a 
passer-by  might  suggest  a  cure.^  Asklepiades 
before  Him  had  been  permitted  through  Provi- 
dence to  revive  a  man  who  was  apparently 
dead.  Christ  prayed  God's  life  into  Lazarus* 
body,  which  had  been  three  days  eternally  dead. 

"Now  there  was  about  this  time,  Jesus,  a 
wise  man,  if  it  be  lawful  to  call  him  a  man,  for 
he  was  a  doer  of  wonderful  works, — a  teacher 
of  such  men  as  receive  the  truth  with  pleasure." 

Such  was  the  testimony  of  Josephus,  himself 
not  a  Christian,  writing  in  full  appreciation  of 
the  importance  of  his  witness  in  behalf  of  the 
Messiah,  or  of  one  who  was  posing  as  such. 
The  "wonderful  works"  to  which  Josephus 
referred  were  no  more  and  no  less  than  the 
physical  cures,  and  the  recall  of  the  humanly 
dead  to  physical  and  spiritual  life.  These 
startled  even  the  dull  world  into  a  momentary 
rapt  attention.     Had  stupid  men  been  able 

^Mark  6:56. 

^33 


The  Master  Physician 

and  willing  to  acknowledge  Him,  then  had 
they  earlier  obtained  the  secret  of  eternal  life 
from  the  Great  Physician. 

HIS   PATIENTS 

There  seemed  to  be  no  choice  of  field  for  His 
labor.  If  He  preferred  any,  it  might  be  the 
stony  ground.  The  poor  rather  than  the  rich, 
the  short  of  stature  than  the  noble  of  mien, 
the  woman  who  was  a  sinner  than  Simon  the 
Pharisee,  the  publican  who  cried  "God  be 
merciful"  rather  than  the  supercilious  one  who 
"would  not  so  much  as  lift  up  his  eyes  unto 
heaven."  There  was  no  discrimination.  He 
did  not  disdain  the  rich.  Each  and  all  entered 
into  the  clientele  of  the  Physician  Friend,  and 
the  fee  found  its  discharge  in  the  boundless 
love  that  rendered  the  service. 

In  the  words  "By  chance  there  came  down 
that  way, "  Christ  characterized  the  Providence 
that  is  only  another  expression  for  the  unfailing 
guard  kept  by  Him  over  His  own.  "  For  Jesus' 
sake"  is  the  cry  that  goes  up  with  authority  to 
the  Father  from  many  an  anguished  soul  in 
recollection  of  the  Great  Physician's  promise  of 

134 


The  Master  Physician 

intercession  for  those  whom  He  has  bought  with 
a  price.  "My  little  children  ...  if  any  man 
sin,  we  have  an  advocate  with  the  Father,  Jesus 
Christ  the  righteous.''  ^  How  His  patients 
must  have  known  and  loved  Him!  Even  the 
Pharisees  and  scribes  in  their  hate  continually 
paid  Him  a  tribute  of  respect.  His  prescrip- 
tion for  their  ailments  was  sharp  and  radical, 
but  it  had  ever  a  clean  taste.  Those  of  us  who 
are  still  hypocrites  and  Pharisees  love  Him  for 
the  lesson  He  has  taught  so  distinctly  through 
them. 

From  all  classes  of  society  they  came,  from 
the  leisure  group  and  from  them  who  labor 
through  the  long  day.  Was  it  a  blind  beggar 
surmnoning  Him  from  across  the  road?  He 
obeyed  at  once  the  entreaty  of  the  sightless 
eyes.  Was  it  an  appeal  from  the  lonely  sisters  at 
Bethany  ?.  Lazarus  at  once  heard  an  irresistible 
voice  bidding  him  return  from  the  grave.  Even 
into  His  house  at  Capernaum  they  found  their 
way  through  a  hole  they  made  in  His  roof.^ 

Hear  the  Physician  in  the  most  precious 
lesson  of  hope  and  forgiveness  the  world  has 

*  I  John  2:1.  2  Mark  2. 

^35 


The  Master  Physician 

ever  learned:  "They  say  unto  him,  Master, 
this  woman  was  taken  in  adultery,  in  the  very 
act.  .  .  .  He  .  .  .  said  unto  them,  He  that  is 
without  sin  among  you,  let  him  first  cast  a  stone 
at  her.  .  .  .  And  they,  .  .  .  went  out  one  by 
one,  beginning  at  the  eldest.  .  .  .  He  said 
unto  her.  Woman,  where  are  those  thine  ac- 
cusers? hath  no  man  condemned  thee?  .  .  . 
Neither  do  I  condemn  thee."  ^ 

Nor  was  He  a  specialist  in  the  sense  that  He 
was  ever  found  lacking  in  any  form  of  trouble 
or  disease  of  body  or  soul.  By  the  Galilean 
shore,  away  from  the  crowd,  there  w^as  the 
quiet,  unostentatious  release  of  a  patient  slave 
from  the  bondage  of  thwarted  hearing  and 
speech,  compelling  from  the  fortunate  one  and 
from  his  friends  the  involuntarily  disobedient 
cry,  "He  hath  done  all  things  well!"^ 

A  little  later,  as  they  came  toward  Jericho, 
He  filled  the  eyes  and  life  of  blind  Bartimeus 
with  a  new  and  glad  sunshine.^ 

"With  God,"  said  the  angel,  "nothing  shall 
be  impossible!"  "When  the  sun  was  setting, 
all  they  that  had  any  sick  with  divers  dis- 

1  John  8:3.  2  Mark  7.  ^  Mark  10. 

136 


The  Master  Physician 

eases  brought  them  unto  him;  and  he  laid 
his  hands  on  every  one  of  them,  and  healed 
them."  ' 

"And  behold,  men  brought  in  a  bed  a  man 
which  was  taken  with  a  palsy.  .  .  .  He  said 
unto  the  sick  of  the  palsy,  .  .  .  Arise,  and  take 
up  thy  couch,  and  go  into  thine  house.  And 
immediately  he  rose  up  before  them,  and  took 
up  that  whereon  he  lay."  ^ 

On  the  Sabbath  the  Pharisees  were  incensed 
with  Him  for  His  unremitting  interest  in  un- 
fortunate humankind.  He  scorned  their  criti- 
cism, and  spoke  the  words  that  should  inspire 
with  confidence  and  vigor  many  a  paralyzed 
worker  in  the  vineyard — "Stretch  forth  thy 
hand."  "And  he  did  so,  and  his  hand  was  re- 
stored whole  as  the  other."  ^ 

"  Whosoever  shall  receive  this  child  " !  * 

"Come  unto  me,  all  ye  that  labor  and  are 
heavy  laden,  and  I  will  give  you  rest."  He 
that  would  limit  the  beneficence  of  the  Phy- 
sician Christ  must  bind  Him  with  the  bands 
of  love,  and  measure  His  patience  by  eter- 
nity. 

1  Luke  4.  2  Luke  5.  ^  Luke  6.  *  Luke  9. 


The  Master  Physician 

HIS    SKILL    IN    DIAGNOSIS 

"Sir,  I  perceive  that  thou  art  a  prophet." 

"Come,  see  a  mariy  which  told  me  all  things 
that  ever  I  did."  » 

To  this  woman  Christ  w^as  not  only  a  being 
who  could  read  the  present,  and  past,  and  future 
for  her.  He  was  preeminently  a  man,  not- 
withstanding she  granted  Him  this  vision  and 
power.  Had  He  been  only  man,  her  thirst 
would  still  be  unquenched,  you  and  I  were 
without  hope,  and  the  ages  that  have  rolled  by 
would  be  buried  in  a  night  without  daybreak 
or  dawn.  There  is  a  note  of  amazement  in  the 
accent  laid  by  her  upon  "man"  that  indicates 
an  appreciation  on  her  part  of  som.ething  in 
Him  different,  more  noble,  quite  incomprehen- 
sible. His  diagnostic  acumen  had  pierced  to 
an  untold  depth.  No  man  ever  understood  a 
woman,  much  less  this  Samaritan,  save  Him 
whose  first  glance  had  read  her  through. 

So  too  with  the  priest  and  Levite  who  passed 
by  on  the  other  side.  The  priest  discreetly 
saw  without  looking.    The  Levite,  when  he 

*  John  4. 

138 


The  Master  Physician 

had  "looked  on  him,"  found  his  own  affairs 
more  pressing  than  he  had  thought,  too  urgent 
to  admit  of  tarrying  or  even  of  a  benignant 
smile.  Neither  the  total  abstinence  nor  the  par- 
simony of  compassion  and  friendship  toward 
a  fellow  traveler  seems  too  mean  for  the 
kindly  criticism  and  suggestion,  nor  so  small 
as  to  fail  of  comment  from  the  Superintendent 
of  the  great  human  dispensary.  Evidently 
when  we  fail  to  recognize  the  affair  in  hand 
as  to  its  nature  and  need  He  follows  hard  by, 
binds  up  the  neglected  wound,  pouring  in  oil 
and  wine,  and,  leading  the  sufferer  to  an  inn, 
takes  care  of  him. 

"They  that  are  whole  need  not  a  physician; 
but  they  that  are  sick."  ^  No  malingering  is 
possible  with  Him. 

"  Learn  what  that  meaneth,  I  will  have  mercy, 
and  not  sacrifice."  ^ 

Christ  humbly  served  during  years  of  quiet 
waiting  and  training.  In  the  field  and  car- 
penter-shop He  studied  the  bodies  and  souls  of 
men.  When  at  last  He  laid  His  gentle  hand 
on  the  brow  of  the  weary  world,  it  was  with  a 
*  Luke  5.  2  Matthew  9. 


The  Master  Physician 

very  loving,  unerring   touch,    one  that  never 
started  needless  pain. 

His  disciple  in  medicine  tells  us  that  "a// 
they  that  had  any  sick  with  divers  diseases 
brought  them  unto  him;  and  he  laid  his 
hands  on  every  one  of  them,  and  healed  them." 
We  may  picture  Luke  the  physician  as  he 
probed  the  verity  of  the  records  of  such  a  keen- 
ness of  understanding  and  of  such  a  power  to 
cure.  We  may  with  him  measure  the  wisdom 
and  foreknowledge  requisite  to  invariable  cure. 
We  may  count  upon  the  certainty  of  Luke's  in- 
vestigating the  permanency  of  as  many  as  pos- 
sible of  the  healings  that  had  been  witnessed 
thirty  years  before.  Did  Mary  still  assert  her 
claim  to  be  the  Virgin  God-Mother?  Did 
Bartimeus  still  see?  Were  the  limbs  of  the 
palsied  one  still  leaping  ?  Was  the  centurion's 
servant  still  alive,  and  no  longer  under  bond- 
age save  that  of  love  to  Him  ?  Was  Mary  of 
Bethany^  still  conscious  of  forgiveness,  and 
was  her  old  nature  indeed  washed  clean? 
Had  the  devils  again  entered  the  Magda- 
lene?     Was  the  maniac  of    Gadara    sane? 

1  Vid.  page  no. 
140 


The  Master  Physician 

Jairus'  little  daughter  at  least  were  not  too  old 
to  bear  testimony  of  the  kindly  stranger  who 
"made  her  whole."  Was  there  enough  to 
convince  this  legatee  of  the  Mosaic  science  of 
medicine  that  Christ  cured,  or  only  pretended 
to  save?  Were  none  of  the  brood  whom  He 
tenderly  gathered  under  His  wings  ready  to 
stand  for  Him  ?  Hear  the  conclusion  of  Luke's 
probe.  ... 

"It  seemed  good  to  me  also,  having  had 
perfect  understanding  of  all  things  from  the 
very  first,  to  write  .  .  .  that  thou  mightest  know 
the  certainty  of  those  things." 

Luke  the  physician  had  studied  and  weighed 
the  evidence,  medical  and  lay.  He  was  won 
to  the  Christ  by  all  he  learned.  His  testimony 
is  before  us  to-day. 

From  the  healing  of  the  ten  lepers,  with  the 
inimitable  touch  portraying  the  gratitude  of 
one  and  the  carelessness  of  the  nine — mean- 
ing so  much  in  the  way  of  personal  experience 
from  the  pen  of  a  physician — to  the  farewell 
message  from  the  cross,  "To  day  shalt  thou 

141 


The  Master  Physician 

be  with  me  in  paradise,"  Luke's  verdict  is 
unmistakably  plain.  Christ  had  lived,  and 
still  lived  for  him.  Who  could  discern  salvable 
good  in  the  thief  hanging  at  His  side  could 
claim  Luke  also,  with  his  loyalty  and  science, 
for  all  time.  For  Luke  as  for  us  He  was  and 
is  verily  the  Master  Physician. 

HIS   METHOD    OF    CURE 

"And  it  came  to  pass  in  those  days,  that  he 
went  out  into  a  mountain  to  pray,  and  con- 
tinued all  night  in  prayer  to  God." 

Christ  made  no  secret  of  His  means  of  cure. 
With  one  hand  clasped  in  that  of  the  Father 
in  heaven,  and  the  other  resting  gently  upon 
the  head  of  some  needy  child  of  earth,  a  cir- 
cuit was  established  through  which  ran  endless 
love  and  perfect  peace. 

"  Your  Father  knoweth  that  ye  have  need  of 
these  things."  ^  No  better  illustration  can  be 
had  of  the  fastness  of  His  hold  upon  the  Source 
of  that  power  and  the  richness  of  the  supply, 
than  His  method  of  solving  the  medical  problem 
in  which  the  disciples  had  experienced  dis- 
comfiture and  chagrin.^    We  see  Him  in  many 

*Luke  12.  ^Matthew  17:19-21. 

142 


The  Master  Physician 

medical  r61es — as  teacher,  as  physician,  as 
friend.  No  such  intellect  has  searched  the 
hearts  and  minds  of  men.  Witness  Him  prob- 
ing the  loyalty  of  the  young  man  in  quest  of 
eternal  life,  sick  of  earth,  but  not  ready  for 
heaven.  "  One  thing  thou  lackest :  go  thy 
way,  sell  whatsoever  thou  hast,  and  give  to  the 
poor,  .  .  .  and  come,  take  up  the  cross,  and 
follow  me.  .  .  .  And  he  went  away  grieved  : 
for  he  had  great  possessions." 

In  his  exile  Napoleon  said  of  Him,  "  I  know 
men,  and  Jesus  Christ  is  not  a  man."  It  is 
equally  true  that  as  a  physician  He  was  more 
than  a  healer.  He  had  a  purpose  and  an  end 
in  view.  He  was  leading  the  way  along  which 
He  wishes  the  world  of  men  to  tread.  He 
knew  its  thorniness  for  them  and  for  Him. 
He  knew  the  price  that  must  be  paid  to  win. 
"  When  the  time  was  come .  .  .  He  steadfastly 
set  his  face  to  go  to  Jerusalem."  ^ 

His  part  in  salvation  was  definite  and  deter- 
mined. It  remained  and  still  is  for  the  sons 
of  men  to  follow  where  He  led.  His  sacrifice 
and  their  cure  were  voluntary  on  His  side. 

^  Luke  9. 


The  Master  Physician 

Salvation,  however,  was  and  is  obligatory  upon 
none.  Our  cure  is  perfect  if  we  will;  the 
"will"  is  necessary. 

Christ's  faith  in  His  power  was  that  of  cer- 
tainty. Yet  He  insisted  on  the  patient's  faith 
in  Him.  The  lifting  power,  the  dynamite, 
was  there.  It  must  be  lighted  by  a  torch 
flaming  from  the  deepest  heart  of  him  who 
would  have  the  upheaval  and  the  cure.  Al- 
ways without  money  and  without  price,  but 
never  without  an  abiding  faith.  Else  the 
miracle  became  too  commonplace  to  remain 
possible.  Indeed,  the  transformation  consisted 
not  so  much  in  the  physical  change  as  in 
the  inspiration  that  awakened  and  enabled 
the  dead  confidence  to  lean  on  Him.  "To 
him  that  knocketh  it  shall  be  opened,"  no  mat- 
ter how  faint  the  appeal;  but  the  inference  is 
clear  that  it  shall  be  opened  only  in  response  to 
the  knock. 

Christ's  magnetism  drew  all  men  to  Him, 
and  many  times  must  have  assisted  in  the  cure. 
Men  and  women,  tiny  children,  Pharisees  and 
publicans,  fishermen,  lawyers,  and  artisans, 
Judas  and  John,  Peter  and  Thomas,  overbusy 

144 


The  Master  Physician 

Martha,  the  lonely  woman  at  the  well — each 
and  all  interested  and  found  absorbing  in- 
terest in  Him.  "They  forsook  all,  and  fol- 
lowed." 

Such  thoroughness  was  His  as  startled  those 
who  knew  and  loved  Him  best.  The  inner- 
most self  must  ring  true.  "Now  do  ye  Phari- 
sees make  clean  the  outside  of  the  cup  and  the 
platter."  ^  Endless  scouring  followed  by  disin- 
fection constituted  sound  medical  and  moral  law 
in  Moses^  day,  and  was  reasserted  with  emphasis 
when  a  Greater  than  Moses  was  here.  "He 
that  is  not  with  me  is  against  me."  ^  "  No  man, 
having  put  his  hand  to  the  plough,  and  looking 
back,  is  fit  for  the  kingdom  of  God."  ^  "He 
that  loveth  father  and  mother  more  than  me  is 
not  worthy  of  me."  * 

The  only  fee  asked  by  the  Great  Physician 
was  self-surrender,  but  that  must  be  complete 
in  return  for  eternal  glory  in  fellowship  with 
the  Father  and  with  Him.  "Who,  when  he 
had  found  one  pearl  of  great  price,  went  and 
sold  all  that  he  had,  and  bought  it."  ^    And 

^Luke  II.    2  Luke  ii  :  23.      ^Lu^e  9,     *  Matthew  10. 
*  Matthew   13. 


The  Master  Physician 

on  the  Father's  side,  "  when  he  was  yet  a  great 
way  off,  his  father  saw  him,  and  ran"  to  meet 
him. 

His  sympathy  was  of  such  a  depth  and  con- 
stancy that  "Himself  took  our  infirmities  and 
bare  our  sicknesses."  ^ 

His  tact  led  Him  to  show  His  pierced  hands 
and  side  that  His  disciples  might  recognize, 
and  need  not  after  His  going  feel  too  keenly 
their  doubt  and  forgetfulness  of  Him. 

No  purely  scientific  interest  could  well  have 
been  possible  to  the  Christ,  because  all  science 
was  known  to  and  was  of  Him.  His  method 
and  objective  were  as  fixed  and  clear  as  light, 
A  single  aim  actuated  His  treatment  and 
charmed  those  who  came  to  Him  for  cure. 
"  The  Son  of  man  is  not  come  to  destroy  men's 
lives,  but  to  save  them."  ^  The  world  learned 
on  its  saddest  day  His  willingness  to  die  that 
salvation  might  be  sure. 

The  divine  manliness  of  His  comradeship 
will  ever  attract  men.  "Whatsoever  ye  shall 
ask  the  Father  in  my  name,  he  will  give  it  you."  ' 
As  its  Elder  Brother,  the  Physician  Christ  is 

*  Matthew  8.  *  Luke  9.  ^  John  16. 

146 


The  Master  Physician 

inspiring  the  world  with  an  everwarm  fellow- 
ship against  the  day  in  which  it  shall  stand 
united  before  Him. 

HIS  CERTAINTY   OF   PROGNOSIS 

"Arise,  and  take  up  thy  couch,  and  go  into 
thine  house. "^  This  brief  command  illustrates 
Christ's  method  of  dealing  with  those  whom  He 
cured.  Faith  to  the  uttermost  was  required 
of  the  patient,  but  in  return  there  was  given 
a  permanent,  never  a  doubtful  relief.  Neither 
the  possibility  of  recurrence  nor  relapse  was 
considered  in  the  command  to  carry  off  bodily 
that  whereon  he  lay.  The  result  justified  the 
trust  on  the  part  of  the  cripple,  and  on  newly 
strong  limbs  his  life  began  for  all  time  to 
glorify  the  Physician  King. 

"Weep  not"  constituted  His  message  of  as- 
surance to  the  widow.  Even  death  in  His 
hands  gave  a  favorable  prognosis.  At  His 
command  "  he  that  was  dead  sat  up,  and  began 
to  speak.  And  he  delivered  him  to  his 
mother."  ^ 

With  Mary  He  went  farther  still,  promis- 

^Luke  5.  2  Luke  7. 


The  Master  Physician 

ing  full  forgiveness  of  sin.^  "Her  sins  which 
are  many  are  forgiven."  ^  In  the  present 
tense  the  verb  rmgs  out  with  an  immediate- 
ness  and  certainty  that  must  have  been  sweet 
to  the  ears  of  her  who  had  despaired  of 
pardon  to  the  extent,  perhaps,  of  wanting  it 
not.  "Her  sins,  which  are  many,  are  forgiven; 
for  she  loved  much:  but  to  whom  little  is  for- 
given, the  same  loveth  little.  .  .  .  Thy  faith 
hath  saved  thee;  go  in  peace."  This  pro- 
nouncement of  an  already  accomplished  physi- 
cal and  moral  cure  carries  the  problem  out  of 
the  future  into  the  present  in  a  manner  that 
is  as  precious  as  it  is  unexpected.  "Hath 
saved"  sounds  too  good  to  be  true. 

"Thy  faith  hath  made  thee  whole;  go  in 
peace"  ^  to  the  trembling  woman  brought  a 
similar  surety  of  comfort  and  new  birth.  Im- 
mediately after,  to  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue, 
"Fear  not:  believe  only,  and  she  shall  be  made 
whole."  The  family  thought  her  already  dead, 
and  sent  a  message  to  that  effect.  "Trouble 
not  the  Master."  "Fear  not,"  was  the  reply; 
then  "  they  laughed  him  to  scorn."    The  event 

*  Vid.  page  no.  ^  Luke  7.  *  Luke  8. 

148 


The  Master  Physician 

did  not  prove  Him  mistaken,  for  as  He  "  called, 
saying,  Maid,  arise,  .  .  .  she  arose  straight- 
way." 

And  finally,  that  wondrous  problem,  to 
many  a  most  hopeless  enigma,  that  richest  of 
all  promises  if  endurance  persists  to  the  end: 
"For  whosoever  will  save  his  life  shall  lose  it: 
but  whosoever  will  lose  his  life  for  my  sake, 
the  same  shall  save  it."  ^ 

Christ  realized  as  no  other  physician  the 
struggle  in  store  for  every  victor  over  the  grave. 
This  test  confronted  Him.  He  alone  knew 
that  His  victory  was  necessary  before  we  might 
become  conquerors  through  His  name  and  for 
His  sake. 

HIS   STANDING   AS  A   PHYSICIAN 

Then: 

Josephus  tells  us  that  "He  drew  over  to 
Him  both  many  of  the  Jews,  and  many  of  the 
Gentiles,  .  .  .  those  that  loved  him  at  first 
did  not  forsake  him."     (Antiquities  XVIII, 

3  :3-) 
Matthew,  however,  says  there  was  one  traitor 

1  Luke  9. 
149 


The  Master  Physician 

who,  after  the  Christ  was  betrayed,  "cast  down 
the  pieces  of  silver  in  the  temple,  and  departed, 
and  went  and  hanged  himself."  * 

All  other  testimony  shall  be  that  of  a  loyal 
follower  indeed,  but  loyal  only  for  cause,  and 
devoted  to  His  service  only  after  proving  His 
authority  and  worth.  As  a  member  of  the 
medical  profession,  his  criticism  is  certain  to  be 
sternly  just.  We  can  see  in  Luke  the  giant 
Christopher,  searching  for  the  greatest  king, 
and  grudging  his  service  to  any  save  that  One. 
"Now  when  the  sun  was  setting,  all  they  that 
had  any  sick  with  divers  diseases  brought  them 
unto  him;  and  he  laid  his  hands  on  every  one 
of  them,  and  healed  them."  ^  Evidently  both 
rich  and  poor  are  included  in  the  "all."  Mani- 
festly also  Christ  gave  freely,  withholding 
neither  from  the  influential  rich  nor  from  the 
poor.  It  is  significant  that  "all"  classes 
came. 

"And  the  chief  priests  and  the  scribes  the 
same  hour  sought  to  lay  hands  on  him;  and 
they  feared  the  people.  .  .  .  And  they  could 
not  take  hold  of  his  words  before  the  people: 

1  Matthew  27.  *  Luke  4. 


The  Master  Physician 

and  they  marvelled  at  his  answer,  and  held 
their  peace.'*  ^ 

"And  the  fame  of  him  went  out  into  every 
place  of  the  country  round  about."  "And 
they  were  all  amazed,  and  spake  among  them- 
selves, saying.  What  a  word  is  this!  for  with 
authority  and  power  he  commandeth  the  un- 
clean spirits,  and  they  come  out."  ^ 

"And  a  great  multitude  of  people  out  of  all 
Judaea  and  Jerusalem,  and  from  the  sea  coast 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon  .  .  .  came  to  hear  him, 
and  to  be  healed  of  their  diseases;  and  they 
that  were  vexed  with  unclean  spirits:  and  they 
were  healed."  ^ 

"And  a  certain  centurion  .  .  .  sent  unto 
him  the  elders  of  the  Jews,  beseeching  him 
that  he  would  come  and  heal  his  servant. 
And  when  they  came  to  Jesus,  they  besought 
him  instantly  [urgently]^  saying,  That  he  was 
worthy  for  whom  he  should  do  this."  * 

"And  there  came  a  fear  on  all :  and  they 
glorified  God,  saying.  That  a  great  prophet  is 
risen  up  among  us.  .  .  .  And  this  rumour  of 

*  Luke  20.         2  Luke  4.         3  Luke  6.         *  Luke  7. 


The  Master  Physician 

him  went  forth  throughout   all  Judaea,  and 
throughout  all  the  region  round  about."  ^ 

"And  one  of  the  Pharisees  desired  him  that 
he  would  eat  with  him.  And  he  went  into 
the  Pharisee's  house,  and  sat  down  to  meat."  ^ 
On  a  similar  occasion  the  record  mentions  that 
there  were  lawyers  present.  Evidently  Christ 
had  been  bidden  formally  to  a  table  at  which 
were  critical  guests,  "laying  wait  for  him, 
and  seeking  to  catch  something  out  of  his 
mouth,  that  they  might  accuse  him."  ^  They 
deemed  His  influence  such. 

"Now  Herod  the  tetrarch  heard  of  all  that 
was  done  by  him.  .  .  .  And  Herod  said,  .  .  . 
who  is  this,  of  whom  I  hear  such  things  ?  And 
he  desired  to  see  him."  * 

"And,  behold,  there  was  a  man  named 
Zaccheus,  which  was  the  chief  among  the  pub- 
licans, and  he  was  rich.  And  he  sought  to  see 
Jesus."  ^  "Then  drew  near  unto  him  all  the 
publicans  and  sinners  for  to  hear  him.  And  the 
Pharisees  and  scribes  murmured,  saying,  This 
man  receiveth  sinners,  and  eateth  with  them."  ® 

^  Luke  7.        ^Lui^e  ^_        SL^j^e  u,        <Luke  9. 
5  Luke  19.  ^Luke  15. 


The  Master  Physician 

All  strata  of  society  were  represented  in 
His  train.  Poor  jostled  elbows  with  the  rich, 
the  lofty  and  disdainful  with  the  lowly  and 
sincere.  Curiosity  and  respect  for  an  object  of 
common  admiration  leveled  mountain-high 
partitions  between  the  little  and  the  great. 

"And  it  came  to  pass,  that  as  he  was  come 
nigh  unto  Jericho,  a  certain  blind  man  sat  by  the 
wayside  begging.  And  they  told  him,  that  Jesus 
of  Nazareth  passeth  by.  And  he  cried,  saying, 
Jesus,  thou  son  of  David,  have  mercy  on  me."^ 
The  beggars  knew  him. 

"And  one  of  the  malefactors  which  were 
hanged  railed  on  him.  .  .  .  But  the  other 
answering  rebuked  him,  saying,  .  .  .  this 
man  hath  done  nothing  amiss."  ^ 

"But  whom  say  ye  that  I  am?  Peter  an- 
swering said.  The  Christ  of  God."  * 

NoWy  Anno  Domini  igio: 

Whittier  speaks  as  one  who  has  known  and 
loved  Him  as  his  Physician  Friend.  The 
world  more  and  more  widely  endorses  the 
tribute. 

^Luke  i8.  ^Lukg  23.  3  Luke  9. 


The  Master  Physician 

"Immortal  Love,  forever  full, 
Forever  flowing  free, 
Forever  shared,  forever  whole, 
A  never-ebbing  sea! 

"  Our  outward  lips  confess  the  name 
All  other  names  above; 
Love  only  knoweth  whence  it  came, 
And  comprehendeth  love. 

"  We  may  not  climb  the  heavenly  steeps 
To  bring  the  Lord  Christ  down: 
In  vain  we  search  the  lowest  deeps, 
For  him  no  depths  can  drown. 

"But  warm,  sweet,  tender,  even  yet 
A  present  help  is  he; 
And  faith  has  still  its  Olivet, 
And  love  its  Galilee. 

"The  healing  of  his  seamless  dress 
Is  by  our  beds  of  pain; 
We  touch  him  in  life's  throng  and  press. 
And  we  are  whole  again. 

"Through  him  the  first  fond  prayers  are  said 
Our  lips  of  childhood  frame; 
The  last  low  whispers  of  our  dead 
Are  burdened  with  his  name. 

"Our  Lord,  and  Master  of  us  all! 
Whate'er  our  name  or  sign, 
We  own  thy  sway,  we  hear  thy  call. 
We  test  our  lives  by  thine." 


The  Master  Physician 

There  is  now  added  to  ''  Christ  for  the 
world"  the  response  ''the  world  for  Christ." 
As  promised  long  ago,  the  refrain  is  being 
sounded  by  '*  the  great  voice  of  much  people." 

We  can  see  in  the  distance — perhaps  of  to- 
morrow— a  fairer  day  than  has  yet  dawned. 
Sorrow  and  disease  shall  have  vanished  away. 
Joy,  health,  and  the  right  to  live  shall  again 
have  become  God-given  treasures.  Innocence 
shall  insure  immunity  from  the  curse  of  sin. 
The  world  shall  be  glad  to  live  because  it  has 
given  Christ  room. 

"  And  his  name  shall  be  in  their  foreheads." 

"And  they  brought  unto  him  also  infants, 
that  he  would  touch  them." 

As  we  see  ourselves  in  all  our  littleness  as 
moral  children,  and  as  we  feel  our  helplessness 
apart  from  Him,  it  becomes  easy  to  forget  His 
ever-presence,  and  to  exclaim — 

*'  I  wish  that  His  hand  had  been  laid  on  my  head, 
That  His  arm  had  been  thrown  around  me!" 

Have  we  not  all  sent  up  this  appealing  cry 
from  deformed,  childlike,  inward  lives? 
Else  have  we  neither  realized  the  burning 
155 


The  Master  Physician 

need  of  Christ's  purifying  touch  nor  ex- 
perienced as  yet  the  transforming  vigor  that 
flows  in  with  His  cure. 

I  think  He  loves  best  of  all  His  child  patients. 
Beyond  all  shadow  of  doubt  He  loved  childlike 
simplicity  and  genuineness  in  men.  None 
feared  Him.  None  need  fear  Him  to-day. 
His  was  and  is  a  winsome,  comforting,  never  a 
blinding,  smothering  love.  It  could  not  be 
otherwise,  for  you  can  even  now  hear  the  voice  of 
the  Saviour  Physician  speaking  ever  so  clearly : 

"  He  that  is  least  among  you  all,  the  same 
shall  be  great." 

"His  Twelve  disputing  who  was  first  and  chief, — 
He  took  a  little  child,  knit  holy  arms 
Round  the  brown,  flower-soft  boy;  and  smiled  and  said: 
'Here  is  the  first  and  chief  est!     If  a  man 
Will  be  the  greatest,  see  he  make  himself 
Lowest  and  least;  a  servant  unto  all; 
Meek  as  my  small  disciple  here,  who  asks 
No  place,  nor  praise;  but  takes  unquestioning 
Love,  as  the  river-lilies  take  the  sun, 
And  pays  it  back  with  rosy  folded  palms 
Clasped  round  my  neck,  and  simple  head  reclined 
On  his  Friend's  breast."* 

156 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The  Bible King  James  Version  and 

the  American  Revision 

History  of  Medicine Bostock 

Memoirs  of  Medicine Walker 

History  of  Medicine Park 

History  of  Medicine Hamilton 

History  of  Physiology Foster 

Divine  Hygiene Rattray 

State  of  Physicians  Among  the  Old  Romans   .    .  Middleton 
Die   Medizin   im    Neuen    Testament    und    im 

Talmud Ebstein 

Ancient  and  Modern  Physicians Barker 

The  Medical  Language  of  St.  Luke Hobart 

Demon  Possession  and  Allied  Themes Nevius 

The  Apostolic  Age Purves 

History  of  Jewish  Physicians  from   the  French 

of  E.  Carmoly Dunbar 

Contributions  of  the  Jews  to  Medicine Friedenwald 

Asklepian  Temples  of  Health Curtin 

The  Gospel  According  to  St.  Luke Sadler 

The  Works  of  Josephus Translated  by  Whiston 

I-em-hotep  and  Ancient  Egyptian  Medicine    .    .  Caton 

Temples  and  Ritual  of  Asklepios Caton 

Medical  Symbolism Sozinskey 

Asklepiades  von  Bithynien v.  Vilas 

Secret  Societies  of  All  Ages  and  Countries  .    .   .  Heckethom 

The  Life  of  Lives Farrar 

Natural  History Pliny 

General  History Freeman 

Roman  Empire Gibbon 

Life  of  Publicola Plutarch 

Egyptian  Book  of  the  Dead .    .    .  Translated  by  Budge 
The  Talmud Translated  by  Barclay 


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